The Hroswitha Club was a membership-based club of women bibliophiles and collectors based in New York City , active from 1944 to 2004.
108-406: The Hroswitha Club was founded in 1944 by a group of women bibliophiles: Sarah Gildersleeve Fife (who convened the group), Belle da Costa Greene , Anne Lyon Haight , Ruth S. Granniss , Eleanor Cross Marquand , Henrietta C. Bartlett and Rachel McMasters Miller Hunt . It was named in honor of Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim, a 10th-century German secular canoness , dramatist and poet. At the time of
216-481: A Hessian garrison at Trenton to hold western New Jersey and the east shore of the Delaware. Desperate for a victory, Washington and his generals devised a surprise attack on Trenton. The army was to cross the Delaware in three divisions: one led by Washington (2,400 troops), another by General James Ewing (700), and the third by Colonel John Cadwalader (1,500). The force was to then split, with Washington taking
324-751: A Treaty of Alliance with the Americans. Congress ratified the treaty in May, which amounted to a French declaration of war against Britain. In May 1778, Howe resigned and was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton . The British evacuated Philadelphia for New York that June and Washington summoned a war council of American and French generals. He chose a partial attack on the retreating British at the Battle of Monmouth . Generals Charles Lee and Lafayette moved with 4,000 men, without Washington's knowledge, and bungled their first attack on June 28. Washington relieved Lee and achieved
432-582: A federal holiday , various media depictions , geographical locations including the national capital , the State of Washington , stamps , and currency . In 1976, Washington was posthumously promoted to the rank of general of the Armies , the highest rank in the U.S. Army . Washington consistently ranks in both popular and scholarly polls as one of the greatest presidents in American history. George Washington
540-839: A list of resolutions for the Fairfax County committee, including a call to end the Atlantic slave trade , which were adopted. On August 1, Washington attended the First Virginia Convention . There, he was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress . As tensions rose in 1774, he helped train militias in Virginia and organized enforcement of the Continental Association boycott of British goods instituted by
648-578: A powdered wig ; instead he wore his hair curled, powdered, and tied in a queue in the fashion of the day . Though generally in good physical condition throughout his life, Washington frequently suffered from severe tooth decay and ultimately lost all his teeth but one. He had several sets of false teeth during his presidency. Contrary to common lore, these were not made of wood, but of metal, ivory, bone, animal teeth, and human teeth possibly obtained from slaves. These dental problems left him in constant pain, which he treated with laudanum . Washington
756-741: A Southern invasion against Savannah , reinforced by 2,000 British and Loyalist troops. They repelled an attack by American patriots and French naval forces , which bolstered the British war effort. In June 1778, Iroquois warriors joined with Loyalist rangers led by Walter Butler and killed more than 200 frontiersmen, laying waste to the Wyoming Valley in Northeastern Pennsylvania . In mid-1779, in response to this and other attacks on New England towns, Washington ordered General John Sullivan to lead an expedition to force
864-515: A chaotic ten-day evacuation aboard 120 ships. Soon after, Washington entered the city with 500 men, with explicit orders not to plunder the city. He refrained from exerting military authority in Boston, leaving civilian matters in the hands of local authorities. After the victory at Boston, Washington correctly guessed that the British would return to New York City , a Loyalist stronghold, and retaliate. He arrived there on April 13, 1776, and ordered
972-546: A collection of pamphlets, reprints and periodicals to the library. These materials constitute a named collection within the LuEsther Mertz Library of the NYBG. Among the exceptional titles donated by Mrs Fife are, The Horticultural Society of New York TheHort.org Gardens on Parade Gardens on Parade George Washington George Washington (February 22, 1732 – December 14 , 1799)
1080-626: A dramatist and poet who lived and worked in the Abbey of Gandersheim, in modern-day Lower Saxony. The club gave women a place to exchange information about books and collecting. Until creation of the Hroswitha, there were no institutions available to women bibliophiles in the New York area. For example, it would not be until 1976 that the Grolier Club accepted its first woman member. In 1948
1188-592: A draw after an expansive battle. At nightfall, the British continued their retreat to New York, and Washington moved his army outside the city. Monmouth was Washington's last battle in the North. Washington became America's first spymaster by designing an espionage system against the British. In 1778, Major Benjamin Tallmadge formed the Culper Ring at Washington's direction to covertly collect information about
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#17327805289491296-565: A fierce rivalry that emerged between cabinet members Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton . During the French Revolution , he proclaimed a policy of neutrality while additionally sanctioning the Jay Treaty . He set enduring precedents for the office of president , including republicanism , a peaceful transfer of power , the use of the title " Mr. President ", and the two-term tradition . His 1796 farewell address became
1404-539: A hundred rules for social interaction styled Rules of Civility and Decent Behaviour in Company and Conversation , copied from an English translation of a French book of manners. Washington often visited Mount Vernon and Belvoir , the plantation of William Fairfax , Lawrence's father-in-law. Fairfax became Washington's patron and surrogate father. In 1748, Washington spent a month with a team surveying Fairfax's Shenandoah Valley property. The following year, he received
1512-769: A hundred ships and thousands of troops, began arriving on Staten Island on July 2 to lay siege to the city. After the Declaration of Independence was unanimously adopted on July 4, Washington informed his troops on July 9 that Congress had declared the united colonies to be "free and independent states". Howe's troop strength totaled 32,000 regulars and Hessian auxiliaries , and Washington's consisted of 23,000, mostly raw recruits and militia. In August, Howe landed 20,000 troops at Gravesend, Brooklyn , and approached Washington's fortifications Opposing his generals, Washington chose to fight, based on inaccurate information that Howe's army had only 8,000-plus troops. In
1620-479: A hundred. As a respected military hero and large landowner, Washington held local offices and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature, representing Frederick County in the House of Burgesses for seven years beginning in 1758. He first ran for the seat in 1755 but was soundly beaten by Hugh West. When he ran in 1758, Washington plied voters with beer, brandy, and other beverages. Despite being away serving on
1728-590: A mile from Trenton, so Washington split his force into two columns, rallying his men: "Soldiers keep by your officers. For God's sake, keep by your officers." The two columns were separated at the Birmingham crossroads. General Greene's column took the upper Ferry Road, led by Washington, and General Sullivan's column advanced on River Road. The Americans marched in sleet and snowfall. Many were shoeless with bloodied feet, and two died of exposure. At sunrise, Washington, aided by Colonel Knox and artillery, led his men in
1836-459: A preeminent statement on republicanism in which he wrote about the importance of national unity and the dangers that regionalism, partisanship, and foreign influence pose to it. As a planter of tobacco and wheat, Washington owned many slaves . He grew to oppose slavery near the end of his lifetime, and provided in his will for the manumission of his slaves. Washington's image is an icon of American culture . He has been memorialized by monuments,
1944-674: A proclamation , which promised freedom to slaves if they joined the British. Desperate for manpower by late 1777, Washington relented and overturned his ban. By the end of the war, around one-tenth of Washington's army were blacks. Following the British surrender, Washington sought to enforce terms of the preliminary Treaty of Paris (1783) by reclaiming slaves freed by the British and returning them to servitude. He arranged to make this request to Sir Guy Carleton on May 6, 1783. Instead, Carleton issued 3,000 freedom certificates and all former slaves in New York City were able to leave before
2052-621: A result of disease and lack of food, clothing, and shelter. The British were comfortably quartered in Philadelphia, paying for supplies in pounds sterling , while Washington struggled with a devalued American paper currency . The woodlands were soon exhausted of game. By February, Washington was facing lowered morale and increased desertions among his troops. An internal revolt by his officers, led by Major General Thomas Conway , prompted some members of Congress to consider removing Washington from command. Washington's supporters resisted, and
2160-445: A small force of Virginians and Indian allies to ambush them. During the ambush , French forces were killed outright with muskets and hatchets, including French commander Joseph Coulon de Jumonville , who had been carrying a diplomatic message for the British. The French later found their countrymen dead and scalped, blaming Washington, who had retreated to Fort Necessity. The full Virginia Regiment joined Washington at Fort Necessity
2268-604: A special envoy. He had sent Washington to demand French forces to vacate land that was claimed by the British. Washington was also appointed to make peace with the Iroquois Confederacy , and to gather further intelligence about the French forces. Washington met with Half-King Tanacharison , and other Iroquois chiefs, at Logstown , and gathered information about the numbers and locations of the French forts, as well as intelligence concerning individuals taken prisoner by
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#17327805289492376-606: A standoff. As Washington headed for Boston, word of his march preceded him, and he was greeted everywhere; gradually, he became a symbol of the Patriot cause. Upon Washington's arrival on July 2, 1775, two weeks after the Battle of Bunker Hill , he set up headquarters in Cambridge . When he went to inspect the army, he found undisciplined militia. After consultation, he initiated Benjamin Franklin 's suggested reforms: drilling
2484-502: A surprise attack on the unsuspecting Hessians and their commander, Colonel Johann Rall . The Hessians had 22 killed, including Colonel Rall, 83 wounded, and 850 captured with supplies. Washington retreated across the Delaware to Pennsylvania and returned to New Jersey on January 3, 1777, launching an attack on British regulars at Princeton , with 40 Americans killed or wounded and 273 British killed or captured. American Generals Hugh Mercer and John Cadwalader were being driven back by
2592-542: A surrender document in which he unwittingly took responsibility for "assassinating" Jumonville, later blaming the translator for not properly translating it. In the aftermath, Colonel James Innes took command of intercolonial forces, the Virginia Regiment was divided, and Washington was offered a captaincy in one of the newly formed regiments. He refused, however, as it would have been a demotion and instead resigned his commission. The "Jumonville affair" became
2700-610: A surveyor's license from the College of William & Mary . Even though Washington had not served the customary apprenticeship, Thomas Fairfax appointed him surveyor of Culpeper County, Virginia , where he took his oath of office on July 20, 1749. He subsequently familiarized himself with the frontier region, and though he resigned from the job in 1750, he continued to do surveys west of the Blue Ridge Mountains . By 1752, he had bought almost 1,500 acres (600 ha) in
2808-468: A year at multiple locations, and held its 200th meeting in 1994. Members of the Hroswitha Club included authors, bibliographers, librarians, curators, and private collectors. Individual members had a wide range of collecting interests - they collected books not just about Hroswitha, but also boxing , " military costumes ," and Walt Whitman ; at least one member was a collector of incunabula . By
2916-610: Is easier to conceive, than to describe, the distress of this Family". He canceled all business activity and remained with Martha every night for three months. Washington played a central role before and during the American Revolution. His distrust of the British military had begun when he was passed over for promotion into the Regular Army in 1757. Opposed to taxes imposed by the British Parliament on
3024-595: Is thought to have rendered him sterile, though it is equally likely that "Martha may have sustained injury during the birth of Patsy, her final child, making additional births impossible." The couple lamented not having any children together. Despite this, the two raised Martha's children John Parke Custis (Jacky) and Martha Parke Custis (Patsy), and later Jacky's two youngest children Eleanor Parke Custis (Nelly) and George Washington Parke Custis (Washy), along with numerous nieces and nephews. The marriage gave Washington control over Martha's one-third dower interest in
3132-471: The Battle of Long Island , Howe assaulted Washington's flank and inflicted 1,500 Patriot casualties, the British suffering 400. Washington retreated, instructing General William Heath to acquire river craft. On August 30, General William Alexander held off the British and gave cover while the army crossed the East River under darkness to Manhattan without loss of life or materiel, although Alexander
3240-615: The Charles River froze over, Washington was eager to cross and storm Boston, but General Gates and others were opposed to untrained militia striking well-garrisoned fortifications. Instead, he agreed to secure the Dorchester Heights , 100 feet (30 m) above Boston, with Knox's artillery to try to force the British out. On March 9, under cover of darkness, Washington's troops bombarded British ships in Boston harbor. On March 17, 9,000 British troops and Loyalists began
3348-538: The Delaware River into Pennsylvania , where Major General Lee's replacement General John Sullivan joined him with 2,000 more troops. The future of the Continental Army was in doubt due to lack of supplies, a harsh winter, expiring enlistments, and desertions. Washington was disappointed that many New Jersey residents were Loyalists or skeptical about independence. Howe split up his army and posted
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3456-624: The Hudson River . Historians Nathaniel Philbrick and Ron Chernow noted possible reasons for Arnold's defection to be his anger at losing promotions to junior officers, or repeated slights from Congress. He was also deeply in debt, profiteering from the war, and disappointed by Washington's lack of support during his eventual court-martial . After repeated requests, Washington agreed to give Arnold command of West Point in August. On September 21, Arnold met André and gave him plans to take over
3564-541: The Hudson River . However, General Howe in British-occupied New York City blundered, taking his army south to Philadelphia rather than up the Hudson River to join Burgoyne near Albany . Washington and Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette rushed to Philadelphia to engage Howe. In the Battle of Brandywine , on September 11, 1777, Howe outmaneuvered Washington and marched unopposed into
3672-607: The New York Botanical Garden for which she is most famous. First chosen for membership in the advisory council of the New York Botanical Garden in 1936, she became head of the council in 1940, a post she kept until her resignation in 1948. In its tribute to her, the board of managers of the NYBG said, in part; Following her death, a memorial fund was established at the New York Botanical Garden to support awards to be given, jointly with
3780-533: The Pennington Road and General Sullivan traveling south on the river's edge. Washington ordered a 60-mile search for Durham boats to transport his army, and the destruction of vessels that could be used by the British. He personally risked capture while staking out the Jersey shoreline alone leading up to the crossing. Washington crossed the Delaware on Christmas night, 1776. His men followed across
3888-668: The Virginia militia inspired George to seek a commission. Virginia's lieutenant governor, Robert Dinwiddie , appointed Washington as a major and commander of one of the four militia districts. The British and French were competing for control of the Ohio Valley : the British were constructing forts along the Ohio River, and the French between the Ohio River and Lake Erie . In October 1753, Dinwiddie appointed Washington as
3996-572: The 1760s. Washington imported luxuries and other goods from England, paying for them by exporting tobacco. His profligate spending combined with low tobacco prices left him £1,800 in debt by 1764, prompting him to diversify his holdings. Washington's complete reliance on London tobacco buyer and merchant Robert Cary caused alarm for his own economic security. In 1765, because of erosion and other soil problems, he changed Mount Vernon's primary cash crop from tobacco to wheat and expanded operations to include corn flour milling and fishing. Washington soon
4104-446: The 18,000-acre (7,300 ha) Custis estate , and he managed the remaining two-thirds for Martha's children; the estate also included 84 slaves. As a result, he became one of the wealthiest men in Virginia, which increased his social standing. At Washington's urging, Governor Lord Botetourt fulfilled Dinwiddie's 1754 promise of land bounties to all-volunteer militia during the French and Indian War. In late 1770, Washington inspected
4212-703: The 1950s, membership had been reportedly capped at 40 members. Some notable members were Sarah Gildersleeve Fife , Anne Lyon Haight , Belle da Costa Greene , Frances Hooper , Ruth S. Granniss (librarian to the Grolier Club), Rachel McMasters Miller Hunt , Rosamond B. Loring , Eleanor Cross Marquand , and Shakespeare scholar Henrietta C. Bartlett . Members of the Hroswitha Club included authors, bibliographers, librarians, curators, and private collectors. They exchanged ideas, carried out research, and organized talks and visits to book collecting institutions both private and public. In 1948 Belle da Costa Greene, one of
4320-408: The 27-year-old widow of wealthy plantation owner Daniel Parke Custis . The marriage took place at Martha's estate; she was intelligent, gracious, and experienced in managing a planter's estate, and the couple had a happy marriage. They moved to Mount Vernon, near Alexandria , where he lived as a planter of tobacco and wheat, and he emerged as a political figure. Washington's 1751 bout with smallpox
4428-661: The 300-strong Virginia Regiment , with orders to confront French forces at the Forks of the Ohio . Washington set out with half the regiment in April and soon learned a French force of 1,000 had begun construction of Fort Duquesne there. In May, having set up a defensive position at Great Meadows, he learned that the French had made camp seven miles (11 km) away; he decided to take the offensive. The French detachment proved to be only about 50 men, so Washington advanced on May 28 with
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4536-634: The Acts were mostly repealed in 1770. Parliament sought to punish Massachusetts colonists for their role in the Boston Tea Party in 1774 by passing the Coercive Acts , which Washington saw as "an invasion of our rights and privileges". He said Americans must not submit to acts of tyranny since "custom and use shall make us as tame and abject slaves, as the blacks we rule over with such arbitrary sway". That July, he and George Mason drafted
4644-529: The British demand to vacate to the French commander Saint-Pierre , but the French refused to leave. Saint-Pierre gave Washington his official answer after a few days' delay, as well as food and winter clothing for his party's journey back to Virginia. Washington completed the precarious mission in 77 days, in difficult winter conditions, achieving a measure of distinction when his report was published in Virginia and London. In February 1754, Dinwiddie promoted Washington to lieutenant colonel and second-in-command of
4752-400: The British in New York. Washington had disregarded incidents of disloyalty by Benedict Arnold , who had distinguished himself in many campaigns, including his invasion of Quebec and the Battle of Saratoga . In 1780, Arnold began supplying British spymaster John André with sensitive information intended to compromise Washington and capture West Point , a key American defensive position on
4860-602: The British strategy of showing overwhelming force followed by offering generous terms, changing the course of the war. In February 1777, word of the American victories reached London, and the British realized the Patriots were in a position to demand unconditional independence. In July 1777, British General John Burgoyne led the Saratoga campaign south from Quebec through Lake Champlain and recaptured Fort Ticonderoga intending to divide New England , including control of
4968-579: The British when Mercer was mortally wounded. Washington arrived and led the men in a counterattack which advanced to within 30 yards (27 m) of the British line. Some British troops retreated after a brief stand, while others took refuge in Nassau Hall , which became the target of Colonel Alexander Hamilton 's cannons. Washington's troops charged, the British surrendered in less than an hour, and 194 soldiers laid down their arms. Howe retreated to New York City where his army remained inactive until early
5076-581: The California State Park Board Fund, making the purchase possible. The Canoe Creek Grove became part of what is now Humboldt Redwoods State Park . In the late 1930s, Fife served alongside Mrs. Harriet Barnes Pratt as an officer of the Horticultural Society of New York during the period that the Horticultural Society was active in the preparations for the 1939 New York World's Fair . The Horticultural Society
5184-792: The Club's founding, women bibliophiles were not allowed membership in many premier bibliographic societies such as the Grolier Club , the oldest existing bibliophilic club in North America, or the Caxton Club . (This policy remained in place at both the Grolier and Caxton Clubs until 1976.) The first meeting of the Hroswitha Club was held on November 16, 1944, at the Cosmopolitan Club . It held regular meetings four to five times
5292-830: The Colonies without proper representation , he and other colonists were also angered by the Royal Proclamation of 1763 which banned American settlement west of the Allegheny Mountains and protected the British fur trade . Washington believed the Stamp Act 1765 was an "Act of Oppression" and celebrated its repeal the following year. In March 1766, Parliament passed the Declaratory Act asserting that Parliamentary law superseded colonial law. In
5400-868: The Congress. The American Revolutionary War broke out on April 19, 1775, with the Battles of Lexington and Concord and the Siege of Boston . Upon hearing the news, Washington was "sobered and dismayed", and he hastily departed Mount Vernon on May 4, 1775, to join the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia . On June 14, 1775, Congress created the Continental Army and John Adams nominated Washington as its commander-in-chief , mainly because of his military experience and
5508-481: The Forbes Expedition, he won the election with roughly 40 percent of the vote, defeating three opponents with the help of local supporters. Early in his legislative career, Washington rarely spoke or even attended legislative sessions. He would later become a prominent critic of Britain's taxation policy and mercantilist policies towards the American colonies and became more politically active starting in
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#17327805289495616-547: The French. Washington was nicknamed Conotocaurius by Tanacharison. The name, meaning "devourer of villages", had been given to his great-grandfather John Washington in the late 17th century by the Susquehannock . Washington's party reached the Ohio River in November 1753, and was intercepted by a French patrol. The party was escorted to Fort Le Boeuf , where Washington was received in a friendly manner. He delivered
5724-588: The Garden Club of America, for "exceptionally fine publications, unusual design in planting, horticultural research and other rare accomplishment or service to the world of gardening." In establishing the Fund, the Garden wrote, The first award from this fund was given in 1952. There have been many notable recipients of this prestigious award. Among them are; In 1949, Mrs. Fife bequeathed 440 volumes as well as
5832-655: The Iroquois by half. They became unable to survive the harsh winter of 1779–1780; some historians now describe the campaign as a genocide. Washington's troops went into quarters at Morristown, New Jersey for their worst winter of the war, with temperatures well below freezing. New York Harbor was frozen, snow covered the ground for weeks, and the troops again lacked provisions. In January 1780, Clinton assembled 12,500 troops and attacked Charles Town, South Carolina , defeating General Benjamin Lincoln . By June, they occupied
5940-410: The Iroquois out of New York by effecting "the total destruction and devastation" of their villages and taking their women and children hostage. The expedition systematically destroyed Iroquois villages and food stocks, and forced at least 5,036 Iroquois to flee to British Canada. The campaign directly killed a few hundred Iroquois, but according to historian Rhiannon Koehler, the net effect was to reduce
6048-779: The South Carolina Piedmont . Clinton returned to New York and left 8,000 troops under the command of General Charles Cornwallis . Congress replaced Lincoln with Horatio Gates; after his defeat in the Battle of Camden , Gates was replaced by Nathanael Greene, Washington's initial choice, but the British had firm control of the South. Washington was reinvigorated, however, when Lafayette returned from France with more ships, men, and supplies, and 5,000 veteran French troops led by Marshal Rochambeau arrived at Newport, Rhode Island in July 1780. French naval forces then landed, led by Admiral de Grasse . Washington's army went into winter quarters at New Windsor, New York in December 1780; he urged Congress and state officials to expedite provisions so
6156-455: The United States. He resigned his commission in 1783 after the conclusion of the Revolutionary War. Washington played an indispensable role in the drafting of the Constitution, which replaced the Articles of Confederation in 1789. He was then twice elected president unanimously by the Electoral College in 1788 and 1792. As the first U.S. president, Washington implemented a strong, well-financed national government while remaining impartial in
6264-523: The Valley and owned 2,315 acres (937 ha). In 1751, Washington left mainland North America for the first and only time, when he accompanied Lawrence to Barbados , hoping the climate would cure his brother's tuberculosis. Washington contracted smallpox during that trip, which left his face slightly scarred. Lawrence died in 1752, and Washington leased Mount Vernon from his widow Anne; he inherited it outright after her death in 1761. Throughout his life Washington generally had good physical health and
6372-428: The Virginia Regiment in 1755. He was later elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses and was named a delegate to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, which appointed him commander-in-chief of the Continental Army . Washington led American forces to a decisive victory over the British in the Revolutionary War , leading the British to sign the Treaty of Paris , which acknowledged the sovereignty and independence of
6480-413: The activities of the club and to American Gardening and Horticulture, the Sarah Gildersleeve Fife Award was created (see below). It is considered one of the Garden Club's highest honors. Fife's work assumed national importance with her service as a director of the Horticultural Society of New York and as a board member of the American Botanical Society in Washington, D.C. It was, perhaps, her service to
6588-424: The advice of Generals Greene and Putnam to defend Fort Washington . They were unable to hold it; Washington abandoned the fort and ordered his army north to the White Plains . Howe's pursuit forced Washington to retreat across the Hudson River to Fort Lee to avoid encirclement. Howe landed his troops on Manhattan in November and captured Fort Washington , inflicting high casualties on the Americans. Washington
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#17327805289496696-570: The army would not "continue to struggle under the same difficulties they have hitherto endured". On March 1, 1781, Congress ratified the Articles of Confederation , but the government that took effect on March 2 did not have the power to levy taxes, and it loosely held the states together. General Clinton sent Benedict Arnold, now a British Brigadier General with 1,700 troops, to Virginia to capture Portsmouth and conduct raids on Patriot forces; Washington responded by sending Lafayette south to counter Arnold's efforts. Washington initially hoped to bring
6804-450: The army's supply lines by reorganizing the commissary department. By late February, supplies began arriving. Meanwhile, Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben 's incessant drilling transformed Washington's recruits into a disciplined fighting force by the end of winter camp. For his services, Washington promoted Von Steuben to Major General and made him chief of staff. In early 1778, the French responded to Burgoyne's defeat and entered into
6912-426: The belief that a Virginian would better unite the colonies. He was unanimously elected by Congress the next day. Washington appeared before Congress in uniform and gave an acceptance speech on June 16, declining a salary, though he was later reimbursed expenses. Washington was commissioned on June 19 and officially appointed by Congress as "General & Commander in chief of the army of the United Colonies and of all
7020-402: The city was evacuated by the British in late November 1783. Early in 1775, in response to the growing rebellious movement, London sent British troops to occupy Boston , led by General Thomas Gage , commander of British forces in America. They set up fortifications, making the city impervious to attack. Local militias surrounded the city and effectively trapped the British troops, resulting in
7128-447: The club founded its library and the following year, following Mrs. Fife's death, named it the Sarah Gildersleeve Fife Memorial Library. The club held its 200th meeting in 1994 and continued until at least 1999. Many members eventually joined the Grolier Club . Sarah Fife was a local and national leader in American gardening. Her involvement with organized gardening began in the Connecticut town of Middleton where she became president of
7236-449: The club, she served on numerous committees, including the Bulletin, Flower Show, Horticultural and Library committee. It is perhaps for her work on the Committee for the Supervision of Redwood Grove that she made her most lasting impact. In 1931, the committee raised $ 75,000 (equivalent to over $ 1,000,000 in 2010) towards the purchase of a 2,552-acre tract of old-growth redwoods known as Canoe Creek Grove. This amount matched that donated by
7344-452: The combined forces of the Continental Army commanded by Washington, the French Army commanded by General Comte de Rochambeau, and the French Navy commanded by Admiral de Grasse. On August 19, the march to Yorktown led by Washington and Rochambeau began, which is known now as the " celebrated march ". Washington was in command of an army of 7,800 Frenchmen, 3,100 militia, and 8,000 Continentals. Inexperienced in siege warfare, he often deferred to
7452-513: The commanders positioned under Arnold at key points around the fort to prevent any complicity. He assumed personal command at West Point and reorganized its defenses. André's trial for espionage ended in a death sentence, and Washington offered to return him to the British in exchange for Arnold, but Clinton refused. André was hanged on October 2, 1780, despite his request for a firing squad, to deter other spies. In late 1778, General Clinton shipped 3,000 troops from New York to Georgia and launched
7560-485: The construction of fortifications to thwart the expected British attack. He also ordered his occupying forces to treat civilians and their property with respect, to avoid the abuses Bostonians suffered at the hands of British troops. Howe transported his resupplied army, with the British fleet, from Halifax to New York City . George Germain , who ran the British war effort in England, believed it could be won with one "decisive blow". The British forces, including more than
7668-470: The current Constitution of the United States . Washington has thus become commonly known as the " Father of his Country ". Washington's first public office, from 1749 to 1750, was as surveyor of Culpeper County in the Colony of Virginia . In 1752, he received military training and was granted the rank of major in the Virginia Regiment . During the French and Indian War , Washington was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1754 and subsequently became head of
7776-543: The dates that Hroswitha's dramas were performed. The Club also commissioned a life of Hroswitha, by Robert Herndon Fife (1947). The Club maintained its own private library, established in 1948 and later named the Sarah Gildersleeve Fife Memorial Library in honor of the club's founder; it specialized in books about Hroswitha, books published by members of the club, and other books of interest to collectors. The club's official bookplate
7884-489: The engagement, he had two horses shot from under him, and his hat and coat were bullet-pierced. His conduct under fire redeemed his reputation among critics of his command in the Battle of Fort Necessity, but he was not included by the succeeding commander (Colonel Thomas Dunbar) in planning subsequent operations. The Virginia Regiment was reconstituted in August 1755, and Dinwiddie appointed Washington its commander, again with
7992-582: The few professional women then in the club, organized a visit to the Pierpont Morgan Library , giving group members access to the vault of rare materials. Additionally, the Club published several works throughout the 20th century, most notably a 1965 bibliography of Hroswitha almost a decade in the making; entitled Hroswitha of Gandersheim: Her Life, Times and Works, it was edited by Anne Lyon Haight with contributions from other Club members. Members carried out original research, establishing
8100-474: The fight to New York, drawing off British forces from Virginia and ending the war there, but Rochambeau advised him that Cornwallis in Virginia was the better target. De Grasse's fleet arrived off the Virginia coast, cutting off British retreat. Seeing the advantage, Washington made a feint towards Clinton in New York, then headed south to Virginia. The siege of Yorktown in October 1781 was a decisive victory by
8208-608: The following month with news that he had been promoted to command of the regiment and colonel upon the regimental commander's death. The regiment was reinforced by an independent company of a hundred South Carolinians led by Captain James Mackay ; his royal commission outranked Washington's and a conflict of command ensued. On July 3, a French force attacked with 900 men, and the ensuing battle ended in Washington's surrender. Washington did not speak French, however, he signed
8316-434: The forces raised or to be raised by them". He was instructed to take charge of the Siege of Boston on June 22, 1775. Congress chose his primary staff officers, including Major General Artemas Ward , Adjutant General Horatio Gates , Major General Charles Lee , Major General Philip Schuyler , and Major General Nathanael Greene . Henry Knox , a young bookkeeper, impressed Adams and Washington with ordnance knowledge and
8424-601: The formal education his elder half-brothers received at Appleby Grammar School in England, but he did attend the Lower Church School in Hartfield . He learned mathematics, including trigonometry , and land surveying , and became a talented draftsman and mapmaker . By early adulthood, he was writing with "considerable force" and "precision". As a teenager, to practice his penmanship, Washington compiled over
8532-729: The garden club. As an affiliate of the Garden Club of America , she reported on their activities which included the establishment of a reference library. Her leadership in developing plantings around the public library was a harbinger of her later work, on a national level, to develop plantings around military hospitals. The Garden Club of America provides leadership as the national organization of regional gardening clubs promoting conservation, coordinating activities, sharing knowledge and skills and advocating beautification projects at all levels of community life in America. A notable member of
8640-403: The garrison. While returning to British lines, André was captured by militia who discovered the plans; upon hearing the news of André's capture on September 24, while waiting to greet and have breakfast with Washington, Arnold immediately fled to HMS Vulture , the ship that had brought André to West Point, and escaped to New York. Upon being told about Arnold's treason, Washington recalled
8748-538: The ice-obstructed river from McConkey's Ferry , with 40 men per vessel. The wind churned up the waters, and they were pelted with hail, but by 3:00 a.m. on December 26, they made it across with no losses. Knox was delayed, managing frightened horses and about 18 field guns on flat-bottomed ferries. Cadwalader and Ewing failed to cross due to the ice and heavy currents. Once Knox arrived, Washington proceeded to Trenton, rather than risk being spotted returning his army to Pennsylvania. The troops spotted Hessian positions
8856-617: The incident which ignited the French and Indian War , later to become part of the Seven Years' War . In 1755, Washington served voluntarily as an aide to General Edward Braddock , who led a British expedition to expel the French from Fort Duquesne and the Ohio Country . On Washington's recommendation, Braddock split the army into one main column and a lightly equipped "flying column". Suffering from severe dysentery , Washington
8964-540: The lands in the Ohio and Great Kanawha regions, and he engaged surveyor William Crawford to subdivide it. Crawford allotted 23,200 acres (9,400 ha) to Washington; Washington told the veterans that their land was hilly and unsuitable for farming, and he agreed to purchase 20,147 acres (8,153 ha), leaving some feeling they had been duped. He also doubled the size of Mount Vernon to 6,500 acres (2,600 ha) and, by 1775, had increased its slave population by more than
9072-576: The late 1760s, the interference of the British Crown in American lucrative western land speculation spurred the American Revolution. Washington was a prosperous land speculator, and in 1767, he encouraged "adventures" to acquire backcountry western lands. Washington helped lead widespread protests against the Townshend Acts passed by Parliament in 1767, and he introduced a proposal in May 1769 which urged Virginians to boycott British goods;
9180-528: The matter of Dagworthy; Loudoun humiliated Washington, refused him a royal commission and agreed only to relieve him of the responsibility of manning Fort Cumberland. In 1758, the Virginia Regiment was assigned to the British Forbes Expedition to capture Fort Duquesne. Washington disagreed with General John Forbes' tactics and chosen route. Forbes nevertheless made Washington a brevet brigadier general and gave him command of one of
9288-545: The matter was dropped after much deliberation. Once the plot was exposed, Conway wrote an apology to Washington, resigned, and returned to France. Washington made repeated petitions to Congress for provisions. He received a congressional delegation to check the Army's conditions and expressed the urgency of the situation, proclaiming: "Something must be done. Important alterations must be made." He recommended that Congress expedite supplies, and Congress agreed to strengthen and fund
9396-429: The nation's capital at Philadelphia. A Patriot attack failed against the British at Germantown in October. In Upstate New York , the Patriots were led by General Horatio Gates . Concerned about Burgoyne's movements southward, Washington sent reinforcements north with Generals Benedict Arnold , his most aggressive field commander, and Benjamin Lincoln . On October 7, 1777, Burgoyne tried to take Bemis Heights but
9504-643: The next year. Washington took up winter headquarters in Jacob Arnold's Tavern in Morristown, New Jersey , while he received munition from the Hibernia mines . While in Morristown, Washington's troops disrupted British supply lines and expelled them from parts of New Jersey. During his stay in Morristown, Washington ordered the inoculation of Continental troops against smallpox. This went against
9612-536: The occasion of their visit by scholar and collector Miriam Y. Holden. Sarah Gildersleeve Fife Sarah Gildersleeve Fife (28 Sep 1885 – 20 May 1949) was a prominent force among women bibliophiles in the first half of the 20th century and a leader in gardening and horticulture, advocating the use of plantings around army bases and military hospitals. Sarah Gildersleeve was born in Gildersleeve, Connecticut to Ferdinand and Harriet Northam Gildersleeve,
9720-492: The professionalism of the regiment as it grew from 300 to 1,000 men, and Virginia's frontier population suffered less than other colonies. Though he failed to realize a royal commission, he gained self-confidence, leadership skills, and knowledge of British military tactics. The destructive competition Washington witnessed among colonial politicians fostered his later support of a strong central government. On January 6, 1759, Washington, at age 26, married Martha Dandridge Custis ,
9828-765: The rank of colonel. Washington clashed over seniority almost immediately, this time with John Dagworthy , another captain of superior royal rank, who commanded a detachment of Marylanders at the regiment's headquarters in Fort Cumberland . Washington, impatient for an offensive against Fort Duquesne, was convinced Braddock would have granted him a royal commission and pressed his case in February 1756 with Braddock's successor as Commander-in-Chief , William Shirley , and again in January 1757 with Shirley's successor, Lord Loudoun . Shirley ruled in Washington's favor only in
9936-546: The second of 4 children. Her family had been in Connecticut since the early 1600s and trace their origins in England for hundreds of years before that. Her grandfather, Philip, fought with Colonel Josiah Smith during the American Revolution. Colonel Smith's unit of 250 men was part of the Long Island Militia which fought under the leadership of George Washington in the Battle of Long Island . Later, Philip
10044-713: The soldiers and imposing strict discipline. Washington ordered his officers to identify the skills of recruits to ensure military effectiveness, while removing incompetent officers. He petitioned Gage, his former superior, to release captured Patriot officers from prison and treat them humanely. In October 1775, King George III declared that the colonies were in open rebellion and relieved Gage of command for incompetence, replacing him with General William Howe . The Continental Army, reduced to only 9,600 men by January 1776 due to expiring short-term enlistments, had to be supplemented with militia. Soon, they were joined by Knox with heavy artillery captured from Fort Ticonderoga . When
10152-443: The three brigades that would assault the fort. The French had abandoned the fort and the valley before the assault, however, and Washington only saw a friendly fire incident which left 14 dead and 26 injured. Frustrated, he resigned his commission soon afterwards and returned to Mount Vernon. Under Washington, the Virginia Regiment had defended 300 miles (480 km) of frontier against twenty Indian attacks in ten months. He increased
10260-705: The wishes of the Continental Congress who had issued a proclamation prohibiting it, but Washington feared the spread of smallpox in the army. The mass inoculation proved successful, with only isolated infections occurring and no regiments incapacitated by the disease. The British still controlled New York, and many Patriot soldiers did not re-enlist or deserted after the harsh winter campaign. Congress instituted greater rewards for re-enlisting and punishments for desertion to effect greater troop numbers. Strategically, Washington's victories at Trenton and Princeton were pivotal; they revived Patriot morale and quashed
10368-631: Was a Founding Father of the United States , military officer, and farmer who served as the first president of the United States from 1789 to 1797. Appointed by the Second Continental Congress as commander of the Continental Army in 1775, Washington led Patriot forces to victory in the American Revolutionary War . He then served as president of the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which drafted
10476-676: Was a master carpenter on the USS Connecticut . She married Robert Herndon Fife , professor of Germanic languages and literature at Columbia University. They had no children. She died in Hartford, Connecticut. In 1944, Fife helped found the Hroswitha Club of women book collectors in New York City and served as its first president. The club was named for Hrotsvitha , a 10th-century German secular canoness, as well as
10584-566: Was a member of the non-profit corporation Hortus, the entity chosen for planning and administering the Gardens on Parade exhibit at the Fair. As a result of her tireless and productive work, she was elected president and served from 1935 to 1938. She edited the club's periodical, The Bulletin, and during World War II was chairman of the club's committee on planting gardens at army camps and hospitals. In recognition of her outstanding contributions to
10692-497: Was a talented equestrian, with Thomas Jefferson describing him as "the best horseman of his age". He collected thoroughbreds at Mount Vernon, his two favorite horses being Blueskin and Nelson . He enjoyed hunting foxes, deer, ducks, and other game. He was an excellent dancer and frequently attended the theater. He drank alcohol in moderation but was morally opposed to excessive drinking, smoking tobacco, gambling, and profanity. Lawrence Washington's service as adjutant general of
10800-762: Was born on February 22, 1732, at Popes Creek in Westmoreland County, Virginia . He was the first of six children of Augustine and Mary Ball Washington . His father was a justice of the peace and a prominent public figure who had four additional children from his first marriage to Jane Butler. The family moved to Little Hunting Creek in 1734 before eventually settling in Ferry Farm near Fredericksburg, Virginia . When Augustine died in 1743, Washington inherited Ferry Farm and ten slaves; his older half-brother Lawrence inherited Little Hunting Creek and renamed it Mount Vernon . Washington did not have
10908-436: Was captured. Howe was emboldened by his Long Island victory and dispatched Washington as "George Washington, Esq." in futility to negotiate peace. Washington declined, demanding to be addressed with diplomatic protocol, as general and fellow belligerent, not as a "rebel", lest his men be hanged as such if captured. The Royal Navy bombarded the unstable earthworks on lower Manhattan Island. Despite misgivings, Washington heeded
11016-518: Was counted among the political and social elite in Virginia. From 1768 to 1775, he invited some 2,000 guests to Mount Vernon, mostly those whom he considered people of rank, and was known to be exceptionally cordial toward guests. Washington also took time for leisure with fox hunting, fishing, dances, theater, cards, backgammon, and billiards. Washington's stepdaughter Patsy suffered from epileptic attacks from age 12, and she died at Mount Vernon in 1773. The following day, he wrote to Burwell Bassett : "It
11124-483: Was inspired by a copy of Albrecht Dürer 's woodcut of Hroswitha that Rachel McMasters Miller Hunt acquired and donated to the club; she later had her friend Sarah B. Hill design the club's bookplate based on the woodcut. Records of the Club's correspondence and activities are found principally at the Grolier Club. Additionally, the Princeton University Library holds an address to the Club on
11232-692: Was isolated from support by Howe. He was forced to retreat to Saratoga and ultimately surrendered after the Battles of Saratoga . As Washington suspected, Gates' victory emboldened his critics. Biographer John Alden maintains, "It was inevitable that the defeats of Washington's forces and the concurrent victory of the forces in upper New York should be compared." Admiration for Washington was waning, including little credit from John Adams. Washington and his Continental Army of 11,000 men went into winter quarters at Valley Forge north of Philadelphia in December 1777. There they lost between 2,000 and 3,000 men as
11340-418: Was left behind, and when he rejoined Braddock at Monongahela the French and their Indian allies ambushed the divided army. Two-thirds of the British force became casualties, including the mortally wounded Braddock. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gage , Washington, still very ill, rallied the survivors and formed a rear guard, allowing the remnants of the force to disengage and retreat. During
11448-429: Was responsible for delaying the retreat, though he blamed Congress and General Greene. Loyalists in New York City considered Howe a liberator and spread a rumor that Washington had set fire to the city. Patriot morale reached its lowest when Lee was captured. Now reduced to 5,400 troops, Washington's army retreated through New Jersey , and Howe broke off pursuit to set up winter quarters in New York. Washington crossed
11556-498: Was somewhat reserved in personality, but was known for having a strong presence. He made speeches and announcements when required, but he was not a noted orator nor debater. He was taller than most of his contemporaries; accounts of his height vary from 6 ft (1.83 m) to 6 ft 3.5 in (1.92 m) tall, he weighed between 210–220 pounds (95–100 kg) as an adult, and was known for his great strength. He had grey-blue eyes and long reddish-brown hair. He did not wear
11664-428: Was subsequently promoted to colonel and chief of artillery. Similarly, Washington was impressed by Alexander Hamilton 's intelligence and bravery. He would later promote him to colonel and appoint him his aide-de-camp . Washington initially banned the enlistment of blacks, both free and enslaved, into the Continental Army. The British saw an opportunity to divide the colonies, and the colonial governor of Virginia issued
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