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70-410: The Human Development Index ( HDI ) is a statistical composite index of life expectancy , education (mean years of schooling completed and expected years of schooling upon entering the education system ), and per capita income indicators, which is used to rank countries into four tiers of human development . A country scores a higher level of HDI when the lifespan is higher, the education level
140-448: A 50% life expectancy of 3–10 years. Other demographics that tend to have a lower life expectancy than average include transplant recipients and the obese. Education on all levels has been shown to be strongly associated with increased life expectancy. This association may be due partly to higher income, which can lead to increased life expectancy. Despite the association, among identical twin pairs with different education levels, there
210-466: A 60-year one ). Aggregate population measures—such as the proportion of the population in various age groups—are also used alongside individual-based measures—such as formal life expectancy—when analyzing population structure and dynamics. Pre-modern societies had universally higher mortality rates and lower life expectancies at every age for both males and females. Life expectancy, longevity , and maximum lifespan are not synonymous. Longevity refers to
280-576: A country's development status. They conclude that 11%, 21% and 34% of all countries can be interpreted as currently misclassified in the development bins due to the three sources of data error, respectively. Wolff, Chong and Auffhammer suggest that the United Nations should discontinue the practice of classifying countries into development bins because the cut-off values seem arbitrary, and the classifications can provide incentives for strategic behavior in reporting official statistics, as well as having
350-587: A healthy diet. The World Health Organization announced that the COVID-19 pandemic reversed the trend of steady gain in life expectancy at birth. The pandemic wiped out nearly a decade of progress in improving life expectancy. During the last 200 years, African countries have generally not had the same improvements in mortality rates that have been enjoyed by countries in Asia, Latin America, and Europe. This
420-924: A high school education have the shortest life expectancies. Preschool education also plays a large role in life expectancy. It was found that high-quality early-stage childhood education had positive effects on health. Researchers discovered this by analyzing the results of the Carolina Abecedarian Project , finding that the disadvantaged children who were randomly assigned to treatment had lower instances of risk factors for cardiovascular and metabolic diseases in their mid-30s. Various species of plants and animals, including humans, have different lifespans. Evolutionary theory states that organisms which—by virtue of their defenses or lifestyle—live for long periods and avoid accidents, disease, predation, etc. are likely to have genes that code for slow aging, which often translates to good cellular repair. One theory
490-603: A link to decreased thyroid activity, resulting in their lowered metabolic rate. Education Index The Education Index is a component of the Human Development Index (HDI) published every year by the United Nations Development Programme . Alongside the economical indicators ( GDP ) and Life Expectancy Index , it helps measure the educational attainment . GNI (PPP) per capita and life expectancy are also used with
560-403: A low LEB would have a small proportion of older people. A different measure, such as life expectancy at age 5 (e 5 ), can be used to exclude the effect of infant mortality to provide a simple measure of overall mortality rates other than in early childhood. For instance, in a society with a life expectancy of 30, it may nevertheless be common to have a 40-year remaining timespan at age 5 (but not
630-528: A number of grounds, including focusing exclusively on national performance and ranking, lack of attention to development from a global perspective, measurement error of the underlying statistics, and on the UNDP's changes in formula which can lead to severe misclassification of "low", "medium", "high" or "very high" human development countries. There have also been various criticism towards the lack of consideration regarding sustainability (which later got addressed by
700-576: A promising candidate for further research within the field. This study suggests that high levels of iron in the blood likely reduce, and genes involved in metabolising iron likely increase healthy years of life in humans. A follow-up study which investigated the genetics of frailty and self-rated health in addition to healthspan, lifespan, and longevity also highlighted haem metabolism as an important pathway, and found genetic variants which lower blood protein levels of LPA and VCAM1 were associated with increased healthy lifespan. In developed countries,
770-477: A tight budget for food energy called caloric restriction . Caloric restriction observed in many animals (most notably mice and rats) shows a near doubling of life span from a very limited calorific intake. Support for the theory has been bolstered by several new studies linking lower basal metabolic rate to increased life expectancy. That is the key to why animals like giant tortoises can live so long. Studies of humans with life spans of at least 100 have shown
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#1732764821925840-814: A total of 13 million "missing Americans" from 1980 to 2021, deaths that would have been averted if it had the standard mortality rate of " wealthy nations ". The annual number of "missing Americans" has been increasing, with 622,534 in 2019 alone. Most excess deaths in the United States can largely be attributed to increasing obesity , alcoholism , drug overdoses , car accidents , suicides , and murders , with poor sleep , unhealthy diets , and loneliness being linked to most of them. Black Americans have generally shorter life expectancies than their White American counterparts. For example, white Americans in 2010 are expected to live until age 78.9, but black Americans only until age 75.1. This 3.8-year gap, however,
910-400: Is a calculation of the average number of years of education a student over the age of 25 has actually received. It's based on education attainment levels of the population converted into years of schooling based on theoretical duration of each level of education attended. 15 years is the projected maximum of this indicator for 2025 and is thus used as the maximum for the index. This means that
980-458: Is a calculation of the number of years a student is expected to attend school, or university. In most countries, a master's degree represents the highest obtainable level of education, and obtaining one reflects 18 years of education. This means that if every student in a country enrolled in a master's degree that country's EYS index would be 1.0. MYS {\displaystyle {\textrm {MYS}}} , mean years of schooling,
1050-596: Is a major component of well-being and is used in the measure of economic development and quality of life , which is a key factor determining whether a country is a developed , developing , or underdeveloped country. A country's education index is calculated with the following formula: E I = E Y S 18 + M Y S 15 2 {\displaystyle EI={\frac {{\frac {EYS}{18}}+{\frac {MYS}{15}}}{2}}} EYS {\displaystyle {\textrm {EYS}}} , expected years of schooling,
1120-660: Is a partial explanation. Another explanation is the unguarded X hypothesis . According to this hypothesis, one reason for why the average lifespan of males is not as long as that of females––by 18% on average, according to the study––is that they have a Y chromosome which cannot protect an individual from harmful genes expressed on the X chromosome, while a duplicate X chromosome, as present in female organisms, can ensure harmful genes are not expressed . In developed countries, starting around 1880, death rates decreased faster among women, leading to differences in mortality rates between males and females. Before 1880, death rates were
1190-509: Is a statistical measure of the estimate of the average remaining years of life at a given age. The most commonly used measure is life expectancy at birth (LEB, or in demographic notation e 0 , where e x denotes the average life remaining at age x ). This can be defined in two ways. Cohort LEB is the mean length of life of a birth cohort (in this case, all individuals born in a given year) and can be computed only for cohorts born so long ago that all their members have died. Period LEB
1260-492: Is also likely to be affected by exposure to high levels of highway air pollution or industrial air pollution . This is one way that occupation can have a major effect on life expectancy. Coal miners (and in prior generations, asbestos cutters) often have lower life expectancies than average. Other factors affecting an individual's life expectancy are genetic disorders, drug use, tobacco smoking , excessive alcohol consumption, obesity, access to health care, diet, and exercise. In
1330-527: Is an average, a particular person may die many years before or after the expected survival. Life expectancy is also used in plant or animal ecology , and in life tables (also known as actuarial tables). The concept of life expectancy may also be used in the context of manufactured objects, though the related term shelf life is commonly used for consumer products, and the terms "mean time to breakdown" and " mean time between failures " are used in engineering. The earliest documented work on life expectancy
1400-411: Is considered central — someone choosing to be hungry (e.g. when fasting for religious reasons ) is considered different from someone who is hungry because they cannot afford to buy food, or because the country is going through a famine . The index does not take into account several factors, such as the net wealth per capita or the relative quality of goods in a country. This situation tends to lower
1470-526: Is estimated to be less than 10%, meaning the majority of variation in lifespan is attributable due to differences in environment rather than genetic variation . However, researchers have identified regions of the genome which can influence the length of life and the number of years lived in good health. For example, a genome-wide association study of 1 million lifespans found 12 genetic loci which influenced lifespan by modifying susceptibility to cardiovascular and smoking-related disease . The locus with
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#17327648219251540-493: Is higher, and the gross national income GNI (PPP) per capita is higher. It was developed by Pakistani economist Mahbub ul-Haq and was further used to measure a country's development by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)'s Human Development Report Office. The 2010 Human Development Report introduced an inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI). While the simple HDI remains useful, it stated that "the IHDI
1610-414: Is known to have lived. According to a study by biologists Bryan G. Hughes and Siegfried Hekimi, there is no evidence for limit on human lifespan. However, this view has been questioned on the basis of error patterns. A theoretical study shows that the maximum life expectancy at birth is limited by the human life characteristic value δ, which is around 104 years. The following information is derived from
1680-465: Is most apparent by the impact of AIDS on many African countries. According to projections made by the United Nations in 2002, the life expectancy at birth for 2010–2015 (if HIV/AIDS did not exist) would have been: On average, eastern Europeans tend to live shorter lives than their western counterparts. For example, Spaniards from Madrid can expect to live to 85, but Bulgarians from
1750-460: Is only weak evidence of a relationship between educational attainment and adult mortality. According to a paper from 2015, the mortality rate for the Caucasian population in the United States from 1993 to 2001 is four times higher for those who did not complete high school compared to those who have at least 16 years of education. In fact, within the U.S. adult population, people with less than
1820-437: Is that mitochondrial mutations which shorten lifespan continue to be expressed in males (but less so in females) because mitochondria are inherited only through the mother. By contrast, natural selection weeds out mitochondria that reduce female survival; therefore, such mitochondria are less likely to be passed on to the next generation. This thus suggests that females tend to live longer than males. The authors claim that this
1890-420: Is that if predation or accidental deaths prevent most individuals from living to an old age, there will be less natural selection to increase the intrinsic life span. That finding was supported in a classic study of opossums by Austad; however, the opposite relationship was found in an equally prominent study of guppies by Reznick. One prominent and very popular theory states that lifespan can be lengthened by
1960-722: Is the actual level of human development (accounting for this inequality ), while the HDI can be viewed as an index of 'potential' human development (or the maximum level of HDI) that could be achieved if there was no inequality." The index is based on the human development approach, developed by Mahbub ul-Haq, anchored in Amartya Sen 's work on human capabilities, and often framed in terms of whether people are able to "be" and "do" desirable things in life. Examples include — being: well-fed, sheltered, and healthy; doing: work, education, voting, participating in community life. The freedom of choice
2030-506: Is the lowest it has been since 1975 at the latest, the greatest difference being 7.1 years in 1993. In contrast, Asian American women live the longest of all ethnic and gender groups in the United States, with a life expectancy of 85.8 years. The life expectancy of Hispanic Americans is 81.2 years. In 2023, the life expectancy was 84.5 in Japan, 4.2 years above the OECD average, and one of
2100-544: Is the mean length of life of a hypothetical cohort assumed to be exposed, from birth through death, to the mortality rates observed at a given year. National LEB figures reported by national agencies and international organizations for human populations are estimates of period LEB. Human remains from the early Bronze Age indicate an LEB of 24. In 2019, world LEB was 73.3. A combination of high infant mortality and deaths in young adulthood from accidents, epidemics , plagues, wars, and childbirth, before modern medicine
2170-615: Is the year when the report was published. The HDI has extended its geographical coverage: David Hastings, of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific , published a report geographically extending the HDI to 230+ economies, whereas the UNDP HDI for 2009 enumerates 182 economies and coverage for the 2010 HDI dropped to 169 countries. The Human Development Index has been criticized on
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2240-551: The Industrial Revolution , the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. Recorded deaths among children under the age of 5 years fell in London from 74.5% of the recorded births in 1730–49 to 31.8% in 1810–29, though this overstates mortality and its fall because of net immigration (hence more dying in the metropolis than were born there) and incomplete registration (particularly of births, and especially in
2310-530: The University of Michigan found that life expectancy actually increased during the Great Depression , and during recessions and depressions in general. The authors suggest that when people are working at a more extreme degree during prosperous economic times, they undergo more stress , exposure to pollution , and the likelihood of injury among other longevity-limiting factors. Life expectancy
2380-402: The gastrointestinal tract ; the mentally ill have a four times risk of gastrointestinal disease. As of 2020 and the COVID-19 pandemic, researchers have found an increased risk of death in the mentally ill. The life expectancy of people with diabetes, which is 9.3% of the U.S. population, is reduced by roughly 10–20 years. People over 60 years old with Alzheimer's disease have about
2450-481: The lowest and highest values the variable x {\displaystyle x} can attain, respectively. The Human Development Index (HDI) then represents the uniformly weighted sum with 1 ⁄ 3 contributed by each of the following factor indices: The Human Development Report 2023/24 by the United Nations Development Programme was released on 13 March 2024; the report calculates HDI values based on data collected in 2022. Ranked from 1 to 69 in
2520-485: The planetary pressures-adjusted HDI ), social inequality (which got addressed by the inequality-adjusted HDI ), unemployment or democracy . Economists Hendrik Wolff, Howard Chong and Maximilian Auffhammer discuss the HDI from the perspective of data error in the underlying health, education and income statistics used to construct the HDI. They have identified three sources of data error which are: (i) data updating, (ii) formula revisions and (iii) thresholds to classify
2590-469: The 1961 Encyclopædia Britannica and other sources, some with questionable accuracy. Unless otherwise stated, it represents estimates of the life expectancies of the world population as a whole. In many instances, life expectancy varied considerably according to class and gender. Life expectancy at birth takes account of infant mortality and child mortality but not prenatal mortality. Life expectancy at age 1 reached 34–41 remaining years for
2660-1219: The 2010 Human Development Report calculated the HDI combining three dimensions: In its 2010 Human Development Report, the UNDP began using a new method of calculating the HDI. The following three indices are used: 1. Life Expectancy Index (LEI) = LE − 20 85 − 20 = LE − 20 65 {\displaystyle ={\frac {{\textrm {LE}}-20}{85-20}}={\frac {{\textrm {LE}}-20}{65}}} 2. Education Index (EI) = MYSI + EYSI 2 {\displaystyle ={\frac {{\textrm {MYSI}}+{\textrm {EYSI}}}{2}}} 3. Income Index (II) = ln ( GNIpc ) − ln ( 100 ) ln ( 75 , 000 ) − ln ( 100 ) = ln ( GNIpc ) − ln ( 100 ) ln ( 750 ) {\displaystyle ={\frac {\ln({\textrm {GNIpc}})-\ln(100)}{\ln(75,000)-\ln(100)}}={\frac {\ln({\textrm {GNIpc}})-\ln(100)}{\ln(750)}}} Finally,
2730-426: The 67 –75% surviving the first year. For the 55-65% surviving to age 5, remaining life expectancy reached around 40–45, while the ~50% reaching age 10 could expect another 40 years of life. Average remaining years fell to 33–39 at age 15; ~20 at age 40; 14–18 at age 50; ~10–12 at age 60; and ~6–7 at age 70. Only half of the people born in the early 19th century made it past their 50th birthday. In contrast, 97% of
2800-522: The HDI is the geometric mean of the previous three normalized indices: LE: Life expectancy at birth MYS: Mean years of schooling (i.e. years that a person aged 25 or older has spent in formal education) EYS: Expected years of schooling (i.e. total expected years of schooling for children under 18 years of age, incl. young men and women aged 13–17) GNIpc: Gross national income at purchasing power parity per capita The HDI combined three dimensions last used in its 2009 report: This methodology
2870-627: The United States increased by more than 30 years, of which 25 years can be attributed to advances in public health. There are great variations in life expectancy between different parts of the world, mostly caused by differences in public health , medical care, and diet. Human beings are expected to live on average 60 years in Eswatini and 82.6 years in Japan. An analysis published in 2011 in The Lancet attributes Japanese life expectancy to equal opportunities , excellent public health , and
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2940-466: The United States, the number of centenarians grew from 32,194 in 1980 to 71,944 in November 2010 (232 centenarians per million inhabitants). Mental illness is reported to occur in approximately 18% of the average American population. The mentally ill have been shown to have a 10- to 25-year reduction in life expectancy. Generally, the reduction of lifespan in the mentally ill population compared to
3010-499: The Wolff et al. paper. The Human Development Report Office states that they undertook a systematic revision of the methods used for the calculation of the HDI, and that the new methodology directly addresses the critique by Wolff et al. in that it generates a system for continuously updating the human-development categories whenever formula or data revisions take place. In 2013, Salvatore Monni and Alessandro Spaventa emphasized that in
3080-453: The debate of GDP versus HDI, it is often forgotten that these are both external indicators that prioritize different benchmarks upon which the quantification of societal welfare can be predicated. The larger question is whether it is possible to shift the focus of policy from a battle between competing paradigms to a mechanism for eliciting information on well-being directly from the population. Life expectancy Human life expectancy
3150-416: The disparity is amongst the highest in the world : life expectancy for males in the heavily deprived Calton area stands at 54, which is 28 years less than in the affluent area of Lenzie , which is only 8 km (5.0 mi) away. A 2013 study found a pronounced relationship between economic inequality and life expectancy. However, in contrast, a study by José A. Tapia Granados and Ana Diez Roux at
3220-400: The earlier period). English life expectancy at birth reached 41 years in the 1840s, 43 in the 1870s and 46 in the 1890s, though infant mortality remained at around 150 per thousand throughout this period. Public health measures are credited with much of the recent increase in life expectancy. During the 20th century, despite a brief drop due to the 1918 flu pandemic , the average lifespan in
3290-465: The education index to get the HDI of each country. Since 2010, the education index has been measured by combining average adult years of schooling with expected years of schooling for students under the age of 25, each receiving 50% weighting. Before 2010, the education index was measured by the adult literacy rate (with two-thirds weighting) and the combined primary, secondary, and tertiary gross enrollment ratio (with one-third weighting). Education
3360-536: The existing literature, Kalben concluded that the fact that women live longer than men was observed at least as far back as 1750 and that, with relatively equal treatment, today males in all parts of the world experience greater mortality than females. However, Kalben's study was restricted to data in Western Europe alone, where the demographic transition occurred relatively early. United Nations statistics from mid-twentieth century onward, show that in all parts of
3430-411: The female mortality rate from breast cancer and cervical cancer. In the past, mortality rates for females in child-bearing age groups were higher than for males at the same age. A paper from 2015 found that female foetuses have a higher mortality rate than male foetuses. This finding contradicts papers dating from 2002 and earlier that attribute the male sex to higher in-utero mortality rates. Among
3500-416: The focus of development economics from national income accounting to people-centered policies ". He believed that a simple composite measure of human development was needed to convince the public, academics and politicians that they can, and should, evaluate development not only by economic advances but also improvements in human well-being . Published on 4 November 2010 (and updated on 10 June 2011),
3570-523: The gap in life expectancy between men and women decreasing in later life. This may be attributable to the effects of infant mortality and young adult death rates. Some argue that shorter male life expectancy is merely another manifestation of the general rule, seen in all mammal species, that larger-sized individuals within a species tend, on average, to have shorter lives. This biological difference occurs because women have more resistance to infections and degenerative diseases. In her extensive review of
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#17327648219253640-595: The highest in the world. Japan's high life expectancy can largely be explained by their healthy diets, which are low on salt , fat , and red meat. For these reasons, Japan has a low obesity rate, and ultimately low mortality from heart disease and cancers Cities also experience a wide range of life expectancy based on neighborhood breakdowns. This is largely due to economic clustering and poverty conditions that tend to associate based on geographic location. Multi-generational poverty found in struggling neighborhoods also contributes. In American cities such as Cincinnati ,
3710-494: The largest effect is APOE . Carriers of the APOE ε4 allele live approximately one year less than average (per copy of the ε4 allele), mainly due to increased risk of Alzheimer's disease . In July 2020, scientists identified 10 genomic loci with consistent effects across multiple lifespan-related traits, including healthspan , lifespan, and longevity . The genes affected by variation in these loci highlighted haem metabolism as
3780-604: The life expectancy gap between low income and high-income neighborhoods touches 20 years. Economic circumstances also affect life expectancy. For example, in the United Kingdom, life expectancy in the wealthiest and richest areas is several years higher than in the poorest areas. This may reflect factors such as diet and lifestyle, as well as access to medical care. It may also reflect a selective effect: people with chronic life-threatening illnesses are less likely to become wealthy or to reside in affluent areas. In Glasgow ,
3850-483: The liver . Men are also more likely to die from injuries, whether unintentional (such as occupational , war , or car wrecks ) or intentional ( suicide ). Men are also more likely to die from most of the leading causes of death (some already stated above) than women. Some of these in the United States include cancer of the respiratory system, motor vehicle accidents, suicide, cirrhosis of the liver, emphysema, prostate cancer, and coronary heart disease. These far outweigh
3920-482: The mentally stable population has been studied and documented. The greater mortality of people with mental disorders may be due to death from injury, from co-morbid conditions, or medication side effects. For instance, psychiatric medications can increase the risk of developing diabetes . It has been shown that the psychiatric medication olanzapine can increase risk of developing agranulocytosis , among other comorbidities. Psychiatric medicines also affect
3990-473: The number of centenarians is increasing at approximately 5.5% per year, which means doubling the centenarian population every 13 years, pushing it from some 455,000 in 2009 to 4.1 million in 2050. Japan is the country with the highest ratio of centenarians (347 for every 1 million inhabitants in September 2010). Shimane Prefecture had an estimated 743 centenarians per million inhabitants. In
4060-458: The people born in 21st century England and Wales can expect to live longer than 50 years. English life expectancy at birth averaged about 36 years in the 17th and 18th centuries, one of the highest levels in the world although infant and child mortality remained higher than in later periods. Life expectancy was under 25 years in the early Colony of Virginia , and in seventeenth-century New England, about 40% died before reaching adulthood. During
4130-520: The potential to misguide politicians, investors, charity donors and the public who use the HDI at large. In 2010, the UNDP reacted to the criticism by updating the thresholds to classify nations as low, medium, and high human development countries. In a comment to The Economist in early January 2011, the Human Development Report Office responded to an article published in the magazine on 6 January 2011 which discusses
4200-488: The present, female human life expectancy is greater than that of males, despite females having higher morbidity rates (see health survival paradox ). There are many potential reasons for this. Traditional arguments tend to favor sociology-environmental factors: historically, men have generally consumed more tobacco , alcohol , and drugs than women in most societies, and are more likely to die from many associated diseases such as lung cancer , tuberculosis , and cirrhosis of
4270-449: The ranking of some of the most developed countries , such as the G7 members and others. The origins of the HDI are found in the annual Human Development Reports produced by the Human Development Report Office of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). These annual reports were devised and launched by Pakistani economist Mahbub ul-Haq in 1990, and had the explicit purpose "to shift
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#17327648219254340-486: The region of Severozapaden are predicted to live just past their 73rd birthday. This is in large part due to poor health habits, such as heavy smoking and high alcoholism in the region, and environmental actors, such as high air pollution. In 2022, the life expectancy was 77.5 in the United States , a decline from 2014, but an increase from 2021. In what has been described as a "life expectancy crisis", there were
4410-421: The relatively long lifespan of some members of a population. Maximum lifespan is the age at death for the longest-lived individual of a species. Mathematically, life expectancy is denoted e x {\displaystyle e_{x}} and is the mean number of years of life remaining at a given age x {\displaystyle x} , with a particular mortality . Because life expectancy
4480-498: The same. In people born after 1900, the death rate of 50- to 70-year-old men was double that of women of the same age. Men may be more vulnerable to cardiovascular disease than women, but this susceptibility was evident only after deaths from other causes, such as infections, started to decline. Most of the difference in life expectancy between the sexes is accounted for by differences in the rate of death by cardiovascular diseases among persons aged 50–70. The heritability of lifespan
4550-400: The smallest premature babies (those under 2 pounds (910 grams)), females have a higher survival rate. At the other extreme, about 90% of individuals aged 110 are female. The difference in life expectancy between men and women in the United States dropped from 7.8 years in 1979 to 5.3 years in 2005, with women expected to live to age 80.1 in 2005. Data from the United Kingdom shows
4620-485: The world, females have a higher life expectancy at age 60 than males. Of 72 selected causes of death, only 6 yielded greater female than male age-adjusted death rates in 1998 in the United States. Except for birds, for almost all of the animal species studied, males have higher mortality than females. Evidence suggests that the sex mortality differential in people is due to both biological/genetic and environmental/behavioral risk and protective factors. One recent suggestion
4690-502: The year 2022, the following countries are considered to be of "very high human development": The list below displays the top-ranked country from each year of the Human Development Index. Norway has been ranked the highest sixteen times, Canada eight times, and Switzerland, Japan, and Iceland have each ranked twice. The year represents the time period from which the statistics for the index were derived. In parentheses
4760-406: Was done in the 1660s by John Graunt , Christiaan Huygens , and Lodewijck Huygens . The longest verified lifespan for any human is that of Frenchwoman Jeanne Calment , who is verified as having lived to age 122 years, 164 days, between 21 February 1875 and 4 August 1997. This is referred to as the " maximum life span ", which is the upper boundary of life, the maximum number of years any human
4830-569: Was used by the UNDP until their 2011 report. The formula defining the HDI is promulgated by the United Nations Development Programme ( UNDP ). In general, to transform a raw variable , say x {\displaystyle x} , into a unit-free index between 0 and 1 (which allows different indices to be added together), the following formula is used: where a {\displaystyle a} and b {\displaystyle b} are
4900-413: Was widely available, significantly lowers LEB. For example, a society with a LEB of 40 would have relatively few people dying at exactly 40: most will die before 30 or after 55. In populations with high infant mortality rates, LEB is highly sensitive to the rate of death in the first few years of life. Because of this sensitivity, LEB can be grossly misinterpreted, leading to the belief that a population with
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