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67-519: A humanoid is any non-human entity that resembles a human. Humanoid ( s ) may also refer to: Humanoid Although this usage was common in the sciences for much of the 20th century, it is now considered rare. More generally, the term can refer to anything with distinctly human characteristics or adaptations, such as possessing opposable anterior forelimb - appendages (i.e. thumbs), visible spectrum - binocular vision (i.e. having two eyes), or biomechanic plantigrade - bipedalism (i.e.

134-416: A humanoid of dinosaur origin. Over geologic time, Russell noted that there had been a steady increase in the encephalization quotient or EQ (the relative brain weight when compared to other species with the same body weight) among the dinosaurs. Russell had discovered the first Troodontid skull, and noted that, while its EQ was low compared to humans, it was six times higher than that of other dinosaurs. If

201-405: A generally humanoid shape is likely, though octopus- or starfish-like bodies are also possible. An opposing view is given by Mike Wall, who argues that intelligent extraterrestrials able to contact Humans would most likely have reached a phase allowing them to develop themselves into machines. Several in-universe explanations have been offered for the abundance of humanoids. One of the more common

268-494: A hierarchy of cooperating systems that make up any organism . Luis Villazon points out that animals that move necessarily have a front and a back; as with animals on Earth , sense organs tend to gather at the front as they encounter stimuli there, forming a head . Legs reduce friction, and with legs, bilateral symmetry makes coordination easier. Sentient organisms will, Villazon argues, likely use tools, in which case they need hands and at least two other limbs to stand on. In short,

335-552: A key evolutionary trend throughout human evolution, and consequently an important area of study. Over the course of hominin evolution, brain size has seen an overall increase from 400 cm to 1400 cm . Furthermore, the genus Homo is specifically defined by a significant increase in brain size. The earliest Homo species were larger in brain size as compared to contemporary Australopithecus counterparts, with which they co-inhabited parts of Eastern and Southern Africa. Throughout modern history, humans have been fascinated by

402-720: A multitude of worlds toward a humanoid form. In the television series Stargate SG-1 , the Jaffa are explained as being a hundred-thousand year offshoot of humanity bred by the Goa'uld to suit their purposes, hence their almost-human appearance and physiology, while many other "alien" characters are actually the descendants of human- slaves who were removed from Earth by the Goa'uld. Any humans isolated on multiple planets after 100k+ years of adaptations would most certainly seem "alien" to Earthlings. Similarly, in its spin-off show Stargate Atlantis ,

469-410: A navel, as a placenta aids the development of a large brain case. However, it would not have possessed mammary glands and would have fed its young, as birds do, on regurgitated food. He speculated that its language would have sounded somewhat like bird song . Russell's thought experiment has been met with criticism from other paleontologists since the 1980s, many of whom point out that his Dinosauroid

536-413: A negative reputation. However, with the advent of imaging techniques such as the fMRI and PET scan , several scientific studies were launched to suggest a relationship between encephalization and advanced cognitive abilities. Harry J. Jerison, who invented the formula for encephalization quotient, believed that brain size was proportional to the ability of humans to process information. With this belief,

603-423: A proxy for intelligence and thus as a possible way of comparing the intelligence levels of different species . For this purpose, it is a more refined measurement than the raw brain-to-body mass ratio , as it takes into account allometric effects. Expressed as a formula, the relationship has been developed for mammals and may not yield relevant results when applied outside this group. Encephalization quotient

670-519: A real person as possible, although these words are frequently perceived to be synonymous with a humanoid. While there are many humanoid robots in fictional stories, some real humanoid robots have been developed since the 1990s, and some real human-looking android robots have been developed since 2002. Similarly to robots, virtual avatars may also be called humanoid when resembling humans. Deities are often imagined in human shape (also known as " anthropotheism "), sometimes as hybrids (especially

737-428: A relationship described by an allometric equation: the regression of the logarithms of brain size on body size. The distance of a species from the regression line is a measure of its encephalization. The scales are logarithmic, distance, or residual, is an encephalization quotient (EQ), the ratio of actual brain size to expected brain size. Encephalization is a characteristic of a species. Rules for brain size relates to

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804-751: A relative constant size. Some brain functions, like the brain pathway responsible for a basic task like drawing breath, are basically similar in a mouse and an elephant. Thus, the same amount of brain matter can govern breathing in a large or a small body. While not all control functions are independent of body size, some are, and hence large animals need comparatively less brain than small animals. This phenomenon can be described by an equation C = E / S 2 / 3 , {\displaystyle C=E/S^{2/3},} where E {\displaystyle E} and S {\displaystyle S} are brain and body weights respectively, and C {\displaystyle C}

871-498: A result of similar evolutionary pressures. American psychologist and Dinosaur intelligence theorist Harry Jerison suggested the possibility of sapient dinosaurs. In a 1978 presentation at the American Psychological Association , he speculated that dromiceiomimus could have evolved into a highly intelligent species like human beings. In his book, Wonderful Life , Stephen Jay Gould argues if

938-411: A species as a whole. It is inherently biased given that the cranial volume of an obese and underweight individual would be roughly similar, but their body masses would be drastically different. Another difference of this nature is a lack of accounting for sexual dimorphism. For example, the female human generally has smaller cranial volume than the male; however, this does not mean that a female and male of

1005-634: A trait of primates , crows , and dolphins , at some point. In 1982, Dale Russell , curator of vertebrate fossils at the National Museum of Canada in Ottawa , conjectured a possible evolutionary path that might have been taken by the dinosaur Troodon had it not perished in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago, suggesting that it could have evolved into intelligent beings similar in body plan to humans, becoming

1072-411: Is forebrain neuron count. This was not seen earlier because neuron counts were previously inaccurate for most animals. For example, human brain neuron count was given as 100 billion for decades before Herculano-Houzel found a more reliable method of counting brain cells. It could have been anticipated that EQ might be superseded because of both the number of exceptions and the growing complexity of

1139-471: Is a robot that is based on the general structure of a human, such as a robot that walks on two legs and has an upper torso, or a robot that has two arms, two legs and a head. A humanoid robot does not necessarily look convincingly like a real person, for example, the ASIMO humanoid robot has a helmet instead of a face. An android (male) or gynoid (female) is a humanoid robot designed to look as much like

1206-649: Is all one has to work from. The behavior of extinct mammals and dinosaurs is typically investigated using EQ formulas. Encephalization quotient is also used in estimating evolution of intelligent behavior in human ancestors. This technique can help in mapping the development of behavioral complexities during human evolution. However, this technique is only limited to when there are both cranial and post-cranial remains associated with individual fossils, to allow for brain to body size comparisons. For example, remains of one Middle Pleistocene human fossil from Jinniushan province in northern China has allowed scientists to study

1273-432: Is based on data from mammals, it should be applied to other animals with caution. For some of the other vertebrate classes the power of 3/4 rather than 2/3 is sometimes used, and for many groups of invertebrates the formula may give no meaningful results at all. Snell's equation of simple allometry is were E {\displaystyle E} is the weight of the brain, C {\displaystyle C}

1340-416: Is called the cephalization factor. To determine the value of this factor, the brain and body weights of various mammals were plotted against each other, and the curve of such formula chosen as the best fit to that data. The cephalization factor and the subsequent encephalization quotient was developed by H. J. Jerison in the late 1960s. The formula for the curve varies, but an empirical fitting of

1407-718: Is considered a pseudoscience . Among ancient Greek philosophers, Aristotle in particular believed that after the heart, the brain was the second most important organ of the body. He also focused on the size of the human brain, writing in 335 BCE that "of all the animals, man has the brain largest in proportion to his size." In 1861, French neurologist Paul Broca tried to make a connection between brain size and intelligence. Through observational studies, he noticed that people working in what he deemed to be more complex fields had larger brains than people working in less complex fields. Also, in 1871, Charles Darwin wrote in his book The Descent of Man : "No one, I presume, doubts that

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1474-440: Is extremely costly in terms of energy needed to sustain it. Animals with nutrient rich diets tend to have higher EQs, which is necessary for the energetically costly tissue of brain matter. Not only is it metabolically demanding to grow throughout embryonic and postnatal development, it is costly to maintain as well. Arguments have been made that some carnivores may have higher EQ's due to their relatively enriched diets, as well as

1541-406: Is necessary for basic functions. Presumably these extra neurons are used for higher cognitive processes. Mean EQ for mammals is around 1, with carnivorans , cetaceans and primates above 1, and insectivores and herbivores below. Large mammals tend to have the highest EQs of all animals, while small mammals and avians have similar EQs. This reflects two major trends. One is that brain matter

1608-416: Is not linear, however. Generally, small mammals have relatively larger brains than big ones. Mice have a direct brain/body size ratio similar to humans (1/40), while elephants have a comparatively small brain/body size (1/560), despite being quite intelligent animals. Treeshrews have a brain/body mass ratio of (1/10). Several reasons for this trend are possible, one of which is that neural cells have

1675-531: Is overly anthropomorphic. Gregory S. Paul (1988) and Thomas R. Holtz, Jr. , consider it "suspiciously human" (Paul, 1988) and Darren Naish has argued that a large-brained, highly intelligent troodontid would retain a more standard theropod body plan, with a horizontal posture and long tail, and would probably manipulate objects with the snout and feet in the manner of a bird, rather than with human-like "hands". (Although bipedal dinosaurs often do have hands , if they don't turn them into wings.) A humanoid robot

1742-495: Is significant to inferring the pressures which drive higher EQ's. Specifically, frugivores must utilize a complex, trichromatic map of visual space to locate and pick ripe fruits and are able to provide for the high energetic demands of increased brain mass. Trophic level —"height" on the food chain —is yet another factor that has been correlated with EQ in mammals. Eutheria with either high AB (absolute brain-mass) or high EQ occupy positions at high trophic levels. Eutheria low on

1809-510: Is sociality and flock size. This was a long-standing theory until the correlation between frugivory and EQ was shown to be more statistically significant. While no longer the predominant inference as to selection pressure for high EQ, the social brain hypothesis still has some support. For example, dogs (a social species) have a higher EQ than cats (a mostly solitary species). Animals with very large flock size and/or complex social systems consistently score high EQ, with dolphins and orcas having

1876-404: Is that authors use the only example of intelligent life that they know, humans. In live-action television and films, using humanoid aliens makes it easier to cast human actors to portray alien characters. A study by the zoologist Sam Levin suggests that aliens might indeed resemble humans, given that they are presumably subject to natural selection . Levin argues that this can be expected to produce

1943-488: Is that smaller animals tend to have a higher proportional brain mass, but do not show the same indications of higher cognition as animals with a high EQ. The driving theorization behind the development of EQ is that an animal of a certain size requires a minimum number of neurons for basic functioning, sometimes referred to as a grey floor. There is also a limit to how large an animal's brain can grow given its body size – due to limitations like gestation period, energetics, and

2010-529: Is that the humanoids in the story have evolved on an Earth-like planet or natural satellite , totally independently from Humans on Earth . However, some works have offered alternative explanations: In Star Trek , the explanation is given that a primordial humanoid civilization, the Ancient humanoids , seeded the Milky Way Galaxy with genetically engineered cells to guide the evolution of life on

2077-491: Is the cephalization factor, S {\displaystyle S} is body weight, and r {\displaystyle r} is the exponential constant. The "encephalization quotient" (EQ) is the coefficient C {\displaystyle C} in Snell's allometry equation, usually normalized with respect to a reference species. In the following table, the coefficients have been normalized with respect to

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2144-592: The gods of Ancient Egyptian religion ). A fragment by the Greek poet Xenophanes describes this tendency, ...Men make gods in their own image; those of the Ethiopians are black and narrow-nosed, those of the Thracians have blue eyes and red hair. In animism in general, the spirits innate in certain objects (like the Greek nymphs ) are typically depicted in human shape, e.g. spirits of trees ( Dryads ), of

2211-465: The Black Lagoon , made in 1954 by Jack Arnold . Encephalization quotient Encephalization quotient ( EQ ), encephalization level ( EL ), or just encephalization is a relative brain size measure that is defined as the ratio between observed and predicted brain mass for an animal of a given size, based on nonlinear regression on a range of reference species. It has been used as

2278-512: The EQ could also be unreliable. Additionally, previous studies have suggested that Neanderthals have the same encephalization quotient as modern humans, although their post-crania suggests that they weighed more than modern humans. Because EQ relies on values from both postcrania and crania, the margin for error increases in relying on this proxy in paleo-neurology because of the inherent difficulty in obtaining accurate brain and body mass measurements from

2345-437: The EQ. The EQ of the domestic adult pig is just 0.38, yet pigs can use visual information seen in a mirror to find food, show evidence of self-recognition when presented with their reflections and there is evidence suggesting that pigs are as socially complex as many other highly intelligent animals, possibly sharing a number of cognitive capacities related to social complexity. The concept of encephalization has been

2412-900: The ability to walk on heels and metatarsals in an upright position). Humanoids may also include human-animal hybrids (where each cell has partly human and partly animal genetic contents) and human-animal chimeras (where some cells are human and some cells are animal in origin). Science fiction media frequently present sentient extraterrestrial lifeforms as humanoid as a byproduct of convergent evolution . Humanoid characters are defined by their human-like physical characteristics and forms, which can vary. These characters may appear entirely human, predominantly human-like (e.g., Saiyans from Dragon Ball Z , Martians and Kryptonians from DC Comics ), or they may possess general non-human traits while still having human-like physical characteristics (e.g., human-like Pokémon , ThunderCats characters, various characters from The Amazing World of Gumball ). In

2479-430: The authors, these inconsistencies were the result of the faulty assumption that N c increases linearly with the size of the cortical surface. This notion is incorrect because the assumption does not take into account the variability in cortical thickness and cortical neuron density, which should influence N c . According to Cairo (2011), EQ has flaws to its design when considering individual data points rather than

2546-424: The cognitive capacity required for effectively hunting prey. One example of this is brain size of a wolf ; about 30% larger than a similarly sized domestic dog, potentially derivative of different needs in their respective way of life. Of the animals demonstrating the highest EQ's (see associated table), many are primarily frugivores , including apes , macaques , and proboscideans . This dietary categorization

2613-648: The explanation offered for the humanoid appearance of the Wraith is that the Wraith evolved from a parasite which incorporated human DNA into its own genome after feeding on humans, giving the Wraith their present form. In the field of ufology , humanoid refers to any of the claimed extraterrestrials which abduct human victims, such as the Greys , the Reptilians , Nordics , and Martians . In fantasy settings

2680-400: The formula to a sample of mammals gives w ( brain ) 1   g = 0.12 ( w ( body ) 1   g ) 2 3 . {\displaystyle {\frac {w({\text{brain}})}{1~{\text{g}}}}=0.12\left({\frac {w({\text{body}})}{1~{\text{g}}}}\right)^{\frac {2}{3}}.} As this formula

2747-408: The formulae it used. (See the rest of this article.) The simplicity of counting neurons has replaced it. The concept in EQ of comparing the brain capacity exceeding that required for body sense and motor activity may yet live on to provide an even better prediction of intelligence, but that work has not been done yet. Body size accounts for 80–90% of the variance in brain size, between species, and

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2814-420: The fossil record. The EQ of livestock farm animals such as the domestic pig may be significantly lower than would suggest for their apparent intelligence. According to Minervini et al (2016) the brain of the domestic pig is a rather small size compared to the mass of the animal. The tremendous increase in body weight imposed by industrial farming significantly influences brain-to-body weight measures, including

2881-400: The highest EQ of all cetaceans , and humans with their extremely large societies and complex social life topping the list by a good margin. Birds generally have lower EQ than mammals, but parrots and particularly the corvids show remarkable complex behaviour and high learning ability. Their brains are at the high end of the bird spectrum, but low compared to mammals. Bird cell size is on

2948-567: The highest among invertebrates . Despite the jumping spider having a huge brain for its size, it is minuscule in absolute terms, and humans have a much higher EQ despite having a lower raw brain-to-body weight ratio. Mean EQs for reptiles are about one tenth of those of mammals. EQ in birds (and estimated EQ in other dinosaurs) generally also falls below that of mammals, possibly due to lower thermoregulation and/or motor control demands. Estimation of brain size in Archaeopteryx (one of

3015-507: The human brain and non-primate brains, larger or smaller, might simply be inadequate and uninformative – and our view of the human brain as outlier, a special oddity, may have been based on the mistaken assumption that all brains are made the same (Herculano-Houzel, 2012). There is a distinction between brain parts that are necessary for the maintenance of the body and those that are associated with improved cognitive functions. These brain parts, although functionally different, all contribute to

3082-512: The large proportion which the size of man's brain bears to his body, compared to the same proportion in the gorilla or orang, is closely connected with his mental powers." The concept of quantifying encephalization is also not a recent phenomenon. In 1889, Sir Francis Galton , through a study on college students, attempted to quantify the relationship between brain size and intelligence. Due to Hitler's racial policies during World War II , studies on brain size and intelligence temporarily gained

3149-586: The large relative size of our brains, trying to connect brain sizes to overall levels of intelligence. Early brain studies were focused in the field of phrenology, which was pioneered by Franz Joseph Gall in 1796 and remained a prevalent discipline throughout the early 19th century. Specifically, phrenologists paid attention to the external morphology of the skull, trying to relate certain lumps to corresponding aspects of personality. They further measured physical brain size in order to equate larger brain sizes to greater levels of intelligence. Today, however, phrenology

3216-404: The larger the brain is relative to the body, the more brain weight might be available for more complex cognitive tasks. The EQ formula, as opposed to the method of simply measuring raw brain weight or brain weight to body weight, makes for a ranking of animals that coincides better with observed complexity of behaviour. A primary reason for the use of EQ instead of a simple brain to body mass ratio

3283-486: The latter case, they often overlap with anthropomorphic characters, with humanoid characters being a subtype of anthropomorphism, specifically in terms of physical characteristics. Although there are no known humanoid species outside the genus Homo , the theory of convergent evolution speculates that different species may evolve similar traits, and in the case of a humanoid these traits may include intelligence and bipedalism and other humanoid skeletal changes , as

3350-422: The need to physically support the encephalized region throughout maturation. When normalizing a standard brain size for a group of animals, a slope can be determined to show what a species' expected brain to body mass ratio would be. Species with brain to body mass ratios below this standard are nearing the grey floor, and do not need extra grey matter. Species which fall above this standard have more grey matter than

3417-808: The network of food chains can only develop a high RB (relative brain-mass) so long as they have small body masses. This presents an interesting conundrum for intelligent small animals, who have behaviors radically different from intelligent large animals. According to Steinhausen et al .(2016): Animals with high RB [relative brain-mass] usually have (1) a short life span, (2) reach sexual maturity early, and (3) have short and frequent gestations. Moreover, males of species with high RB also have few potential sexual partners. In contrast, animals with high EQs have (1) a high number of potential sexual partners, (2) delayed sexual maturity, and (3) rare gestations with small litter sizes. Another factor previously thought to have great impact on brain size

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3484-436: The number brain neurons have varied in evolution, then not all mammalian brains are necessarily built as larger or smaller versions of a same plan, with proportionately larger or smaller numbers of neurons. Similarly sized brains, such as a cow or chimpanzee, might in that scenario contain very different numbers of neurons, just as a very large cetacean brain might contain fewer neurons than a gorilla brain. Size comparison between

3551-416: The oldest known ancestors of birds), shows it had an EQ well above the reptilian range, and just below that of living birds. Biologist Stephen Jay Gould has noted that if one looks at vertebrates with very low encephalization quotients, their brains are slightly less massive than their spinal cords. Theoretically, intelligence might correlate with the absolute amount of brain an animal has after subtracting

3618-409: The other hand generally smaller than that of mammals, which may mean more brain cells and hence synapses per volume, allowing for more complex behaviour from a smaller brain. Both bird intelligence and brain anatomy are however very different from those of mammals, making direct comparison difficult. Manta rays have the highest EQ among fish , and either octopuses or jumping spiders have

3685-403: The overall weight of the brain. Jerison (1973) has for this reason considered 'extra neurons', neurons that contribute strictly to cognitive capacities, as more important indicators of intelligence than pure EQ. Gibson et al. (2001) reasoned that bigger brains generally contain more 'extra neurons' and thus are better predictors of cognitive abilities than pure EQ among primates. Factors such as

3752-735: The recent evolution of the cerebral cortex and different degrees of brain folding ( gyrification ), which increases the surface area (and volume) of the cortex, are positively correlated to intelligence in humans. In a meta-analysis, Deaner et al. (2007) tested absolute brain size (ABS), cortex size, cortex-to-brain ratio, EQ, and corrected relative brain size (cRBS) against global cognitive capacities. They have found that, after normalization, only ABS and neocortex size showed significant correlation to cognitive abilities. In primates, ABS, neocortex size, and N c (the number of cortical neurons) correlated fairly well with cognitive abilities. However, there were inconsistencies found for N c . According to

3819-706: The relationship between brain and body size using the Encephalization Quotient. Researchers obtained an EQ of 4.150 for the Jinniushan fossil, and then compared this value with preceding Middle Pleistocene estimates of EQ at 3.7770. The difference in EQ estimates has been associated with a rapid increase in encephalization in Middle Pleistocene hominins. Paleo-neurological comparisons between Neanderthals and anatomically modern Homo sapiens (AMHS) via Encephalization quotient often rely on

3886-555: The same body mass would have different cognitive abilities. Considering all of these flaws, EQ should not be viewed as a valid metric for intraspecies comparison. The notion that encephalization quotient corresponds to intelligence has been disputed by Roth and Dicke (2012). They consider the absolute number of cortical neurons and neural connections as better correlates of cognitive ability. According to Roth and Dicke (2012), mammals with relatively high cortex volume and neuron packing density (NPD) are more intelligent than mammals with

3953-627: The same brain size. The human brain stands out from the rest of the mammalian and vertebrate taxa because of its large cortical volume and high NPD, conduction velocity , and cortical parcellation . All aspects of human intelligence are found, at least in its primitive form, in other nonhuman primates, mammals, or vertebrates, with the exception of syntactical language . Roth and Dicke consider syntactical language an "intelligence amplifier". Brain size usually increases with body size in animals (is positively correlated ), i.e. large animals usually have larger brains than smaller animals. The relationship

4020-403: The tape of life were re-wound and played back, life would have taken a very different course. Simon Conway Morris counters this argument, arguing that convergence is a dominant force in evolution and that since the same environmental and physical constraints act on all life, there is an "optimum" body plan that life will inevitably evolve toward, with evolution bound to stumble upon intelligence,

4087-595: The term humanoid is used to refer to a human-like fantastical creature, such as a dwarf , elf , gnome , halfling , goblin , troll , orc or an ogre , and Bigfoot . In some cases, such as older versions of the game Dungeons & Dragons , a distinction is made between demi-humans , which are relatively similar to humans, and humanoids, which exhibit larger differences from humans. Animals that are humanoid are also shown in fantasy. Humanoids are also used in some old horror movies, for example in Creature From

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4154-651: The trend in Troodon evolution had continued to the present, its brain case could by now measure 1,100 cm ; comparable to that of a human. Troodontids had semi-manipulative fingers, able to grasp and hold objects to a certain degree, and binocular vision. Russell proposed that this " Dinosauroid ", like most dinosaurs of the troodontid family, would have had large eyes and three fingers on each hand, one of which would have been partially opposed . As with most modern reptiles (and birds), he conceived of its genitalia as internal. Russell speculated that it would have required

4221-425: The use of endocasts, but this method has many drawbacks. For example, endocasts do not provide any information regarding the internal organization of the brain. Furthermore, endocasts are often unclear in terms of the preservation of their boundaries, and it becomes hard to measure where exactly a certain structure starts and ends. If endocasts themselves are not reliable, then the value for brain size used to calculate

4288-410: The value for the cat, which is therefore attributed an EQ of 1. Another way to calculate encephalization quotient is by dividing the actual weight of an animal's brain with its predicted weight according to Jerison's formula. This measurement of approximate intelligence is more accurate for mammals than for other classes and phyla of Animalia . Intelligence in animals is hard to establish, but

4355-451: The weight of the spinal cord from the brain. This formula is useless for invertebrates because they do not have spinal cords or, in some cases, central nervous systems. Behavioral complexity in living animals can to some degree be observed directly, making the predictive power of the encephalization quotient less relevant. It is however central in paleoneurology , where the endocast of the brain cavity and estimated body weight of an animal

4422-406: The woodlands (the hybrid fauns ), of wells or waterways ( Nereids , Necks ), etc. With regard to extraterrestrials in fiction , the term humanoid is most commonly used to refer to alien beings with a body plan that is generally like that of a human, including upright stance and bipedalism , as well as intelligence. In much of science fiction , humanoid aliens are abundant. One explanation

4489-413: Was developed in an attempt to provide a way of correlating an animal's physical characteristics with perceived intelligence. It improved on the previous attempt, brain-to-body mass ratio , so it has persisted. Subsequent work, notably Roth, found EQ to be flawed and suggested brain size was a better predictor, but that has problems as well. Currently the best predictor for intelligence across all animals

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