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60-760: They may lie about their name, rank or title, profession, education, identity of family members or friends, social class, notoriety or influence, life experiences, abilities or achievements, their health history or disability (or that of their family members), citizenship or club membership, racial or ethnic background, religious or political affiliation, wealth or property ownership, tenancy or residency, past or current employment, charitable contributions, criminal or civil court history. Many impostors try to gain financial or social advantages through social engineering or through means of identity theft , but also often for purposes of espionage or undercover law enforcement . Their objective may be one of sexual gratification, giving

120-418: A health care professional to share their information with another healthcare professional, even one giving them care—but are advised, where appropriate, about the dangers of this course of action, due to possible drug interactions. However, in a few limited instances, a healthcare worker can share personal information without consent if it is in the public interest. These instances are set out in guidance from

180-507: A non-accredited university or college ). As countries, like Canada, decrease their international student quotas, international students may imposture as asylum claimants. Some impostors may do it for pathological reasons, such as having a personality disorder that involves an excessive need for attention and emotional reactions from others (be it praise and/or sympathy), an excessive sense of self-importance or being special, an excessive sense of entitlement, an excessive need to control others,

240-418: A "lucky winner" is sent a free digital audio player compromising any computer it is plugged to. A " road apple " (the colloquial term for horse manure , suggesting the device's undesirable nature) is any removable media with malicious software left in opportunistic or conspicuous places. It may be a CD, DVD, or USB flash drive , among other media. Curious people take it and plug it into a computer, infecting

300-486: A computer without having a file opened. Of the 297 drives that were dropped, 290 (98%) of them were picked up and 135 (45%) of them "called home". In common law , pretexting is an invasion of privacy tort of appropriation. In December 2006, United States Congress approved a Senate sponsored bill making the pretexting of telephone records a federal felony with fines of up to $ 250,000 and ten years in prison for individuals (or fines of up to $ 500,000 for companies). It

360-431: A false name, false claim of being single or unwed, and/or false age in order to hide adultery , bigamy , or to catfish (e.g. a pedophile pretending to be a youth online). Those in witness protection , those fleeing abusers or persecution, and criminals evading arrest may also assume a false identity. Economic migrants may pose as tourists (visitor visas) or as international students (international student visas with

420-549: A lack of remorse or emotional empathy, chronic and frequent exaggeration or lying about one’s abilities or life events, and exploitativeness. These psychological conditions may include narcissistic personality disorder (NPD), antisocial personality disorder (psychopathy and sociopathy), Munchausen syndrome (factitious disorder imposed on self) and Munchausen-by-proxy (factitious disorder imposed on another). As part of humorous stunts and media pranks, protesters have also engaged in imposture, often revealing their true identity at

480-524: A later time. Many women in history have presented themselves as men in order to advance in typically male-dominated fields. There are many documented cases of this in the military during the American Civil War. However, their purpose was rarely for fraudulent gain. They are listed in the List of wartime cross-dressers . Spies have often pretended to be people other than they were. One famous case

540-411: A link in an unsolicited email, but the same person would not hesitate to follow a link on a website they often visit. So, the attacker prepares a trap for the unwary prey at a favored watering hole. This strategy has been successfully used to gain access to some (supposedly) very secure systems. Baiting is like the real-world Trojan horse that uses physical media and relies on the curiosity or greed of

600-415: A patient's consent to share personal confidential information is assumed. When personal confidential information is shared between healthcare workers, consent is taken as implied. If a patient doesn't want a healthcare worker to share confidential health information, they need to make this clear and discuss the matter with healthcare staff. Patients have the right, in most situations, to refuse permission for

660-475: A person to take an action that may or may not be in their best interests." Research done in 2020 has indicated that social engineering will be one of the most prominent challenges of the upcoming decade. Having proficiency in social engineering will be increasingly important for organizations and countries, due to the impact on geopolitics as well. Social engineering raises the question of whether our decisions will be accurately informed if our primary information

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720-528: A relatively non-negotiable tenet of medical practice. Confidentiality is standard in the United States by HIPAA laws, specifically the Privacy Rule, and various state laws, some more rigorous than HIPAA. However, numerous exceptions to the rules have been carved out over the years. For example, many American states require physicians to report gunshot wounds to the police and impaired drivers to

780-651: A version of this discretionary disclosure rule under Rules of Professional Conduct, Rule 1.6 (or its equivalent). A few jurisdictions have made this traditionally discretionary duty mandatory. For example, see the New Jersey and Virginia Rules of Professional Conduct, Rule 1.6. In some jurisdictions, the lawyer must try to convince the client to conform his or her conduct to the boundaries of the law before disclosing any otherwise confidential information. These exceptions generally do not cover crimes that have already occurred, even in extreme cases where murderers have confessed

840-488: Is about to, provide the patient directly with healthcare to make sure they get the best possible treatment. They only share information that is relevant to their care in that instance, and with consent. There are two ways to give consent: explicit consent or implied consent . Explicit consent is when a patient clearly communicates to a healthcare worker, verbally or in writing or in some other way, that relevant confidential information can be shared. Implied consent means that

900-471: Is determined by the use of negative and positive freedom. Some legal jurisdictions recognise a category of commercial confidentiality whereby a business may withhold information on the basis of perceived harm to "commercial interests". For example, Coca-Cola 's main syrup formula remains a trade secret . Confidentiality agreements that "seal" litigation settlements are not uncommon, but this can leave regulators and society ignorant of public hazards. In

960-437: Is engineered and biased. Social engineering attacks have been increasing in intensity and number, cementing the need for novel detection techniques and cyber security educational programs. All social engineering techniques are based on attributes of human decision-making known as cognitive biases . One example of social engineering is an individual who walks into a building and posts an official-looking announcement to

1020-555: Is legal to sell telephone records, but illegal to obtain them. U.S. Rep. Fred Upton (R- Kalamazoo , Michigan), chairman of the Energy and Commerce Subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet, expressed concern over the easy access to personal mobile phone records on the Internet during a House Energy & Commerce Committee hearing on " Phone Records For Sale: Why Aren't Phone Records Safe From Pretexting? " Illinois became

1080-456: The 2017 Equifax data breach in which over 150 million private records were leaked (including Social Security numbers , and drivers license numbers, birthdates, etc.), warnings were sent out regarding the dangers of impending security risks. In the day after the establishment of a legitimate help website (equifaxsecurity2017.com) dedicated to people potentially victimized by the breach, 194 malicious domains were reserved from small variations on

1140-537: The Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee , implanting malware in them, which caused their computer activities to be monitored and leaked. Two tech giants— Google and Facebook —were phished out of $ 100 million by a Lithuanian fraudster. He impersonated a hardware supplier to falsely invoice both companies over two years. Despite their technological sophistication, the companies lost the money. On 24 November 2014 ,

1200-530: The EU Directive 2001/20/EC , inspectors appointed by the Member States have to maintain confidentiality whenever they gain access to confidential information as a result of the good clinical practice inspections in accordance with applicable national and international requirements. A typical patient declaration might read: I have been informed of the benefit that I gain from the protection and

1260-688: The Federal Trade Commission (FTC). This federal agency has the obligation and authority to ensure that consumers are not subjected to any unfair or deceptive business practices. US Federal Trade Commission Act, Section 5 of the FTCA states, in part: "Whenever the Commission shall have reason to believe that any such person, partnership, or corporation has been or is using any unfair method of competition or unfair or deceptive act or practice in or affecting commerce, and if it shall appear to

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1320-500: The Saltman case on page 215, must "have the necessary quality of confidence about it." Secondly, that information must have been imparted in circumstances importing an obligation of confidence. Thirdly, there must be an unauthorised use of that information to the detriment of the party communicating it. The 1896 case featuring the royal accoucheur Dr William Smoult Playfair showed the difference between lay and medical views. Playfair

1380-560: The hacker group " Guardians of Peace " leaked confidential data from the film studio Sony Pictures Entertainment . The data included emails, executive salaries, and employees' personal and family information. The phishers pretended to be high up employees to install malware on workers' computers. Susan Headley became involved in phreaking with Kevin Mitnick and Lewis de Payne in Los Angeles , but later framed them for erasing

1440-510: The therapeutic alliance , as it promotes an environment of trust. There are important exceptions to confidentiality, namely where it conflicts with the clinician's duty to warn or duty to protect . This includes instances of suicidal behavior or homicidal plans, child abuse , elder abuse and dependent adult abuse . Information shared by a client with a therapist is considered as privileged communication , however in certain cases and based on certain provinces and states they are negated, it

1500-408: The 1990s using social engineering, voice impersonation, and Braille-display computers . Christopher J. Hadnagy is an American social engineer and information technology security consultant. He is best known as an author of 4 books on social engineering and cyber security and founder of Innocent Lives Foundation, an organization that helps tracking and identifying child trafficking by seeking

1560-557: The California Rules of Professional Conduct to conform to the new exception in the revised statute. Recent legislation in the UK curtails the confidentiality professionals like lawyers and accountants can maintain at the expense of the state. Accountants, for example, are required to disclose to the state any suspicions of fraudulent accounting and, even, the legitimate use of tax saving schemes if those schemes are not already known to

1620-402: The Commission that a proceeding by it in respect thereof would be to the interest of the public, it shall issue and serve upon such person, partnership, or corporation a complaint stating its charges in that respect." The statute states that when someone obtains any personal, non-public information from a financial institution or the consumer, their action is subject to the statute. It relates to

1680-556: The Department of Motor Vehicles. Confidentiality is also challenged in cases involving the diagnosis of a sexually transmitted disease in a patient who refuses to reveal the diagnosis to a spouse, and in the termination of a pregnancy in an underage patient, without the knowledge of the patient's parents. Many states in the U.S. have laws governing parental notification in underage abortion. Confidentiality can be protected in medical research via certificates of confidentiality . Due to

1740-571: The General Medical Council, which is the regulatory body for doctors. Sometimes the healthcare worker has to provide the information – if required by law or in response to a court order. The National AIDS Trust has written a guide for people living with HIV to confidentiality in the NHS. The ethical principle of confidentiality requires that information shared by a client with a therapist isn't shared without consent, and that

1800-501: The U.S. state of Washington, for example, journalists discovered that about two dozen medical malpractice cases had been improperly sealed by judges, leading to improperly weak discipline by the state Department of Health. In the 1990s and early 2000s, the Catholic sexual abuse scandal involved a number of confidentiality agreements with victims. Some states have passed laws that limit confidentiality. For example, in 1990 Florida passed

1860-604: The URL, capitalizing on the likelihood of people mistyping. During the 2016 United States Elections , hackers associated with Russian Military Intelligence (GRU) sent phishing emails directed to members of Hillary Clinton 's campaign, disguised as a Google alert. Many members, including the chairman of the campaign, John Podesta , had entered their passwords thinking it would be reset, causing their personal information, and thousands of private emails and documents to be leaked. With this information, they hacked into other computers in

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1920-961: The United Kingdom information about an individual's HIV status is kept confidential within the National Health Service . This is based in law, in the NHS Constitution, and in key NHS rules and procedures. It is also outlined in every NHS employee's contract of employment and in professional standards set by regulatory bodies. The National AIDS Trust's Confidentiality in the NHS: Your Information, Your Rights outlines these rights. All registered healthcare professionals must abide by these standards and if they are found to have breached confidentiality, they can face disciplinary action. A healthcare worker shares confidential information with someone else who is, or

1980-455: The assistance of information security specialists, using data from open-source intelligence (OSINT) and collaborating with law enforcement. Confidentiality Confidentiality involves a set of rules or a promise usually executed through confidentiality agreements that limits the access to or places restrictions on the distribution of certain types of information . By law, lawyers are often required to keep confidential anything on

2040-407: The board. Dunn acknowledged that the company used the practice of pretexting to solicit the telephone records of board members and journalists. Chairman Dunn later apologized for this act and offered to step down from the board if it was desired by board members. Unlike Federal law, California law specifically forbids such pretexting. The four felony charges brought on Dunn were dismissed. Following

2100-414: The company bulletin that says the number for the help desk has changed. So, when employees call for help the individual asks them for their passwords and IDs thereby gaining the ability to access the company's private information. Another example of social engineering would be that the hacker contacts the target on a social networking site and starts a conversation with the target. Gradually the hacker gains

2160-471: The consumer's relationship with the financial institution. For example, a pretexter using false pretenses either to get a consumer's address from the consumer's bank, or to get a consumer to disclose the name of their bank, would be covered. The determining principle is that pretexting only occurs when information is obtained through false pretenses. While the sale of cell telephone records has gained significant media attention, and telecommunications records are

2220-440: The context of information security , social engineering is the psychological manipulation of people into performing actions or divulging confidential information . A type of confidence trick for the purpose of information gathering, fraud, or system access, it differs from a traditional "con" in the sense that it is often one of the many steps in a more complex fraud scheme. It has also been defined as "any act that influences

2280-490: The course of providing medical care. The rule dates back to at least the Hippocratic Oath , which reads in part: Whatever, in connection with my professional service, or not in connection with it, I see or hear, in the life of men, which ought not to be spoken of abroad, I will not divulge, as reckoning that all such should be kept secret. Traditionally, medical ethics has viewed the duty of confidentiality as

2340-964: The first state to sue an online records broker when Attorney General Lisa Madigan sued 1st Source Information Specialists, Inc. A spokeswoman for Madigan's office said. The Florida-based company operates several Web sites that sell mobile telephone records, according to a copy of the suit. The attorneys general of Florida and Missouri quickly followed Madigan's lead, filing suits respectively, against 1st Source Information Specialists and, in Missouri's case, one other records broker – First Data Solutions, Inc. Several wireless providers, including T-Mobile, Verizon, and Cingular filed earlier lawsuits against records brokers, with Cingular winning an injunction against First Data Solutions and 1st Source Information Specialists. U.S. Senator Charles Schumer (D-New York) introduced legislation in February 2006 aimed at curbing

2400-488: The focus of the two bills currently before the United States Senate , many other types of private records are being bought and sold in the public market. Alongside many advertisements for cell phone records, wireline records and the records associated with calling cards are advertised. As individuals shift to VoIP telephones, it is safe to assume that those records will be offered for sale as well. Currently, it

2460-506: The host and any attached networks. Again, hackers may give them enticing labels, such as "Employee Salaries" or "Confidential". One study published in 2016 had researchers drop 297 USB drives around the campus of the University of Illinois. The drives contained files on them that linked to webpages owned by the researchers. The researchers were able to see how many of the drives had files on them opened, but not how many were inserted into

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2520-406: The lawyer has reason to believe that the client may kill or seriously injure someone, may cause substantial injury to the financial interest or property of another, or is using (or seeking to use) the lawyer's services to perpetrate a crime or fraud. In such situations the lawyer has the discretion, but not the obligation, to disclose information designed to prevent the planned action. Most states have

2580-409: The location of missing bodies to their lawyers but the police are still looking for those bodies. The U.S. Supreme Court and many state supreme courts have affirmed the right of a lawyer to withhold information in such situations. Otherwise, it would be impossible for any criminal defendant to obtain a zealous defense. California is famous for having one of the strongest duties of confidentiality in

2640-578: The modern world, reasons for posing as a member of the military or exaggerating one's service record vary, but the intent is almost always to gain the respect and admiration of others. Scientists and filmmakers may also engage in imposture for the purposes of conducting a social experiment or public education. Revealing the deception to participants and/or public being a key part of the experiment. For instance, James Randi’s Project Alpha ; Derren Brown’s Messiah , and Fear & Faith ; or Vikram Gandhi’s Kumaré . Social engineering (security) In

2700-428: The opposing side may be able to surprise the lawyer in court with something he did not know about his client, which may weaken the client's position. Also, a distrustful client might hide a relevant fact he thinks is incriminating, but that a skilled lawyer could turn to the client's advantage (for example, by raising affirmative defenses like self-defense). However, most jurisdictions have exceptions for situations where

2760-454: The practice. The Consumer Telephone Records Protection Act of 2006 would create felony criminal penalties for stealing and selling the records of mobile phone, landline , and Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) subscribers. Patricia Dunn , former chairwoman of Hewlett Packard , reported that the HP board hired a private investigation company to delve into who was responsible for leaks within

2820-497: The purposes described above and in the event of a medical emergency or if required by the law. My data will be processed electronically to determine the outcome of this study, and to provide it to the health authorities. My data may be transferred to other countries (such as the USA). For these purposes the sponsor has to protect my personal information even in countries whose data privacy laws are less strict than those of this country. In

2880-411: The representation of a client. The duty of confidentiality is much broader than the attorney–client evidentiary privilege , which only covers communications between the attorney and the client. Both the privilege and the duty serve the purpose of encouraging clients to speak frankly about their cases. This way, lawyers can carry out their duty to provide clients with zealous representation. Otherwise,

2940-538: The rights granted by the European Union Data Protection Directive and other national laws on the protection of my personal data. I agree that the representatives of the sponsor or possibly the health authorities can have access to my medical records. My participation in the study will be treated as confidential. I will not be referred to by my name in any report of the study. My identity will not be disclosed to any person, except for

3000-402: The sharing of information would be guided by ETHIC Model: Examining professional values, after thinking about ethical standards of the certifying association, hypothesize about different courses of action and possible consequences, identifying how it and to whom will it be beneficial per professional standards, and after consulting with supervisor and colleagues. Confidentiality principle bolsters

3060-469: The system files at US Leasing after a falling out, leading to Mitnick's first conviction. She retired to professional poker. Mike Ridpath is a security consultant, published author, speaker and previous member of w00w00 . He is well known for developing techniques and tactics for social engineering through cold calling . He became well known for live demonstrations as well as playing recorded calls after talks where he explained his thought process on what he

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3120-454: The tax authorities. The "three traditional requirements of the cause of action for breach of confidence" were identified by Megarry J in Coco v A N Clark (Engineers) Ltd (1968) in the following terms: In my judgment, three elements are normally required if, apart from contract, a case of breach of confidence is to succeed. First, the information itself, in the words of Lord Greene, M.R. in

3180-518: The trust of the target and then uses that trust to get access to sensitive information like password or bank account details. Pretexting (adj. pretextual ), also known in the UK as blagging , is the act of creating and using an invented scenario (the pretext ) to engage a targeted victim in a manner that increases the chance the victim will divulge information or perform actions that would be unlikely in ordinary circumstances. An elaborate lie , it most often involves some prior research or setup and

3240-440: The use of this information for impersonation ( e.g. , date of birth, Social Security number , last bill amount) to establish legitimacy in the mind of the target. Water holing is a targeted social engineering strategy that capitalizes on the trust users have in websites they regularly visit. The victim feels safe to do things they would not do in a different situation. A wary person might, for example, purposefully avoid clicking

3300-419: The victim. In this attack , attackers leave malware -infected floppy disks , CD-ROMs , or USB flash drives in locations people will find them (bathrooms, elevators, sidewalks, parking lots, etc.), give them legitimate and curiosity-piquing labels, and wait for victims. Unless computer controls block infections, insertion compromises PCs "auto-running" media. Hostile devices can also be used. For instance,

3360-450: The world; its lawyers must protect client confidences at "every peril to himself [or herself]" under former California Business and Professions Code section 6068(e). Until an amendment in 2004 (which turned subsection (e) into subsection (e)(1) and added subsection (e)(2) to section 6068), California lawyers were not even permitted to disclose that a client was about to commit murder or assault. The Supreme Court of California promptly amended

3420-628: Was consulted by Linda Kitson; he ascertained that she had been pregnant while separated from her husband. He informed his wife, a relative of Kitson's, in order that she protect herself and their daughters from moral contagion. Kitson sued, and the case gained public notoriety, with huge damages awarded against the doctor. Confidentiality is commonly applied to conversations between doctors and patients. Legal protections prevent physicians from revealing certain discussions with patients, even under oath in court. This physician-patient privilege only applies to secrets shared between physician and patient during

3480-527: Was doing to get passwords through the phone. As a child, Ridpath was connected with Badir Brothers and was widely known within the phreaking and hacking community for his articles with popular underground ezines , such as, Phrack, B4B0 and 9x on modifying Oki 900s, blueboxing, satellite hacking and RCMAC. Brothers Ramy, Muzher, and Shadde Badir—all of whom were blind from birth—managed to set up an extensive phone and computer fraud scheme in Israel in

3540-401: Was signed by President George W. Bush on 12 January 2007. The 1999 Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (GLBA) is a U.S. Federal law that specifically addresses pretexting of banking records as an illegal act punishable under federal statutes. When a business entity such as a private investigator, SIU insurance investigator, or an adjuster conducts any type of deception, it falls under the authority of

3600-448: Was that of Chevalier d'Eon (1728–1810), a French diplomat who successfully infiltrated the court of Empress Elizabeth of Russia by presenting as a woman. Historically, when military record-keeping was less accurate than today, some persons—primarily men—falsely claimed to be war veterans to obtain military pensions. Most did not make extravagant claims, because they were seeking money, not public attention that might expose their fraud. In

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