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58-413: Interviews usually take place face-to-face, in person, but the parties may instead be separated geographically, as in videoconferencing or telephone interviews . Interviews almost always involve a spoken conversation between two or more parties, but can also happen between two persons who type their questions and answers. Interviews can be unstructured, free-wheeling, and open-ended conversations without

116-577: A BGAN satellite modem to make a videocall to the BBC from the summit of Mount Everest , at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) above sea level. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in a significant increase in the use of videoconferencing. Berstein Research found that Zoom added more subscribers during the first two months of 2020 alone than in the entire year 2019. GoToMeeting had a 20 percent increase in usage, according to LogMeIn . UK based StarLeaf reported

174-417: A ladder interview , a respondent's answers typically guide subsequent interviews, with the object being to explore a respondent's subconscious motives . Typically the interviewer has some way of recording the information that is gleaned from the interviewee, often by keeping notes with a pencil and paper, or with a video or audio recorder. The traditionally two-person interview format, sometimes called

232-472: A loop extender . They may be 50,000 feet [15 km] or more.) Many calling features became available to telephone subscribers after computerization of telephone exchanges during the 1980s in the United States. The services include voicemail , caller ID , call waiting , speed dialing , conference calls (three-way calling), enhanced 911 , and Centrex services. The communication circuits of

290-444: A 600 percent increase in national call volumes. Videoconferencing became so widespread during the pandemic that the term Zoom fatigue came to prominence, referring to the taxing nature of spending long periods of time on videocalls. This fatigue refers to the psychological and physiological effects participants involved in videoconferencing. One experimental study from 2021 revealed a link between camera use in videoconferencing and

348-419: A basic form of residential and small business connection to the telephone network in many parts of the world. The term encapsulates a technology that has been available since the introduction of the public telephone system in the late 19th century, remaining largely unchanged despite the introduction of innovations such as Touch-Tone dialing, electronic telephone exchanges and fiber-optic communication into

406-528: A century, futurists have envisioned a future where telephone conversations will take place as actual face-to-face encounters with video as well as audio. Sometimes it is simply not possible or practical to have face-to-face meetings with two or more people. Sometimes a telephone conversation or conference call is adequate. Other times, e-mail exchanges are adequate. However, videoconferencing adds another option and can be considered when: Bill Gates said in 2001 that he used videoconferencing "three or four times

464-424: A few hundred Picturephones in the world, users had extremely few contacts they could actually call, and interoperability with other videophone systems would not exist for decades. In the 1980s, digital telephony transmission networks became possible, such as with ISDN networks. During this time, there was also research into other forms of digital video and audio communication. Many of these technologies, such as

522-467: A half century to be discovered. The prerequisite knowledge arose from intensive research and experimentation in several telecommunication fields, notably electrical telegraphy , telephony , radio , and television . Simple analog videophone communication could be established as early as the invention of the television . Such an antecedent usually consisted of two closed-circuit television systems connected via coax cable or radio . An example of that

580-572: A narrow range of sound delays. Videophones have historically employed a variety of transmission and reception bandwidths, which can be understood as data transmission speeds. The lower the transmission/reception bandwidth, the lower the data transfer rate, resulting in a progressively limited and poorer image quality (i.e. lower resolution and/or frame rate). Data transfer rates and live video image quality are related but are also subject to other factors such as data compression techniques . Some early videophones employed very low data transmission rates with

638-500: A newer, more advanced subset of videoconferencing systems, meant to allow higher degrees of video and audio fidelity. Such high-end systems are typically deployed in corporate settings. Mobile collaboration systems are another recent development, combining the use of video, audio, and on-screen drawing capabilities using newest generation hand-held electronic devices broadcasting over secure networks, enabling multi-party conferencing in real time, independent of location. Proximity chat

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696-522: A one-on-one interview, permits direct questions and follow-ups, which enables an interviewer to better gauge the accuracy and relevance of responses. It is a flexible arrangement in the sense that subsequent questions can be tailored to clarify earlier answers. Further, it eliminates possible distortion due to other parties being present. Interviews have taken on an even more significant role, offering opportunities to showcase not just expertise, but adaptability and strategic thinking. Interviews can happen in

754-432: A predetermined plan or prearranged questions. One form of unstructured interview is a focused interview in which the interviewer consciously and consistently guides the conversation so that the interviewee's responses do not stray from the main research topic or idea. Interviews can also be highly structured conversations in which specific questions occur in a specified order. They can follow diverse formats; for example, in

812-548: A prediction of fatigue occurrence an individual. Furthermore, a 2022 article in the journal " Computers in Human Behaviour " highlighted a study linking negative attitudes with the use of "self-view" when videoconferencing. On 21 September 2021, Facebook launched two new versions of its Portal video-calling devices, the Portal Go and Portal Plus. The new video calling devices include the first portable variety of

870-409: A resulting poor video quality. Broadband bandwidth is often called high-speed , because it usually has a high rate of data transmission. In general, any connection of 256 kbit/s (0.256 Mbit/s) or greater is more concisely considered broadband Internet. The International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) recommendation I.113 has defined broadband as

928-638: A transmission capacity at 1.5 to 2   Mbit/s. The Federal Communications Commission (United States) definition of broadband is 25 Mbit/s. Currently, adequate video for some purposes becomes possible at data rates lower than the ITU-T broadband definition, with rates of 768 kbit/s and 384 kbit/s used for some videoconferencing applications, and rates as low as 100 kbit/s used for videophones using H.264/MPEG-4 AVC compression protocols. The newer MPEG-4 video and audio compression format can deliver high-quality video at 2   Mbit/s, which

986-508: A wide variety of contexts: In a blind interview the identity of the interviewee is concealed to reduce interviewer bias. Blind interviews are sometimes used in the software industry and are standard in orchestral auditions . Blind interviews have been shown in some cases to increase the hiring of minorities and women. The relationship between the interviewer and interviewee in research settings can have both positive and negative consequences. Their relationship can bring deeper understanding of

1044-402: A year", because digital scheduling was difficult and "if the overhead is super high, then you might as well just have a face-to-face meeting". Some observers argue that three outstanding issues have prevented videoconferencing from becoming a widely adopted form of communication, despite the ubiquity of videoconferencing-capable systems. These are some of the reasons many organizations only use

1102-682: Is another alternative mode, focused on the flexibility of small group conversations. A more recent technology encompassing these functions is TV cams. TV cams enable people to make video calls using video calling services, like Skype on their TV, without using a PC connection. TV cams are specially designed video cameras that feed images in real time to another TV camera or other compatible computing devices like smartphones, tablets and computers. Webcams are popular, relatively low-cost devices that can provide live video and audio streams via personal computers , and can be used with many software clients for both video calls and videoconferencing. Each of

1160-596: Is at the low end of cable modem and ADSL broadband performance. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has three umbrellas of standards for videoconferencing: The Unified Communications Interoperability Forum (UCIF), a non-profit alliance between communications vendors, launched in May 2010. The organization's vision is to maximize the interoperability of UC based on existing standards. Founding members of UCIF include HP , Microsoft , Polycom , Logitech / Lifesize , and Juniper Networks . Videoconferencing in

1218-455: Is backed up with a bank of batteries, resulting in continuation of service during interruption of power to the customer supplied by their electrical utility. The maximum resistance of the loop is 1,700   ohms , which translates into a maximum loop length of 18,000 feet or 5 km using standard 24- gauge wire . (Longer loops are often constructed with larger, lower-resistance 19-gauge wire and/or specialized central office equipment called

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1276-572: Is called a codec (coder/decoder). Compression rates of up to 1:500 can be achieved. The resulting digital stream of 1s and 0s is subdivided into labeled packets , which are then transmitted through a digital network of some kind (usually ISDN or IP ). The other components required for a videoconferencing system include: There are basically three kinds of videoconferencing and videophone systems: Videoconferencing systems use several methods to determine which video feed or feeds to display. Continuous Presence simply displays all participants at

1334-797: Is more commonly used in personal consumer videophones. A number of call-setup methods based on instant messaging protocols such as Skype also now provide video. Plain old telephone service Plain Old Telephone Service ( POTS ), or Plain Ordinary Telephone System , is a retronym for voice-grade telephone service that employs analog signal transmission over copper loops. The term POTS originally stood for Post Office Telephone Service , as early telephone lines in many regions were operated directly by local Post Offices . For instance, in New Zealand,

1392-519: The Media space , are not as widely used today as videoconferencing but were still an important area of research. The first dedicated systems started to appear as ISDN networks were expanding throughout the world. One of the first commercial videoconferencing systems sold to companies came from PictureTel Corp. , which had an initial public offering in November, 1984. In 1984, Concept Communication in

1450-674: The first public videoconference between North America and Africa took place, linking a technofair in San Francisco with a techno-rave and cyberdeli in Cape Town . At the 1998 Winter Olympics opening ceremony in Nagano , Japan, Seiji Ozawa conducted the Ode to Joy from Beethoven's Ninth Symphony simultaneously across five continents in near-real-time. Kyocera conducted a two-year development campaign from 1997 to 1999 that resulted in

1508-411: The public switched telephone network (PSTN). Modern, automated POTS is characterized by several aspects: The pair of wires from the central office switch to a subscriber's home is called a subscriber loop . It carries a direct current (DC) voltage at a nominal voltage of −48V when the receiver is on-hook, supplied by a power conversion system in the central office. This power conversion system

1566-408: The public switched telephone network continue to be modernized by advances in digital communications; however, other than improving sound quality, these changes have been mainly transparent to customers. In most cases, the function of the local loop presented to the customer for connection to telephone equipment is practically unchanged and remains compatible with pulse dialing telephones. Due to

1624-437: The 1980s and 1990s. Proprietary equipment, software, and network requirements gave way to standards-based technologies that were available for anyone to purchase at a reasonable cost. While videoconferencing technology was initially used primarily within internal corporate communication networks, one of the first community service uses of the technology started in 1992 through a unique partnership with PictureTel and IBM, which at

1682-480: The 2000s via free Internet services such as Skype and iChat , web plugins supporting H.26x video standards, and online telecommunication programs that promoted low cost, albeit lower quality, videoconferencing to virtually every location with an Internet connection. Videotelephony became even more widespread through the deployment of video-enabled mobile phones such as 2010s iPhone 4 , plus videoconferencing and computer webcams which use Internet telephony . In

1740-528: The Internet, which was previously difficult due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed video . The DCT algorithm was the basis for the first practical video coding standard that was useful for online videoconferencing, H.261 , standardised by the ITU-T in 1988, and subsequent H.26x video coding standards . In 1992 CU-SeeMe was developed at Cornell by Tim Dorcey et al. In 1995

1798-453: The United States created a circuit board for standard personal computers that doubled the video frame rate of typical digital videotelephone systems from 15 to 30 frames per second, and reduced the cost from $ 100,000 to $ 12,000. The company also secured a patent for a codec for full-motion videoconferencing, first demonstrated at AT&T Bell Labs in 1986. Very expensive videoconferencing systems continued to rapidly evolve throughout

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1856-411: The ability to view and discuss issues with colleagues thousands of miles away. Traditional videoconferencing system manufacturers have begun providing mobile applications as well, such as those that allow for live and still image streaming. The highest ever video call (other than those from aircraft and spacecraft) took place on May 19, 2013, when British adventurer Daniel Hughes used a smartphone with

1914-483: The demand for separate videophones. Videoconferencing implies group communication. Videoconferencing is used in telepresence , whose goal is to create the illusion that remote participants are in the same room. The concept of videotelephony was conceived in the late 19th century, and versions were available to the public starting in the 1930s. Early demonstrations were installed at booths in post offices and shown at various world expositions. In 1970, AT&T launched

1972-413: The feed with the last speaker remains on the screen. Acoustic echo cancellation (AEC) is a processing algorithm that uses the knowledge of audio output to monitor audio input and filter from it noises that echo back after some time delay. If unattended, these echoes can be re-amplified several times, leading to problems including: Echo cancellation is a processor-intensive task that usually works over

2030-438: The first commercial personal videotelephone system. In addition to videophones, there existed image phones which exchanged still images between units every few seconds over conventional telephone lines . The development of advanced video codecs , more powerful CPUs , and high-bandwidth Internet service in the late 1990s allowed digital videophones to provide high-quality low-cost color service between users almost any place in

2088-402: The first crewed space flights , NASA used two radio-frequency ( UHF or VHF ) video links, one in each direction. TV channels routinely use this type of videotelephony when reporting from distant locations. The news media were to become regular users of mobile links to satellites using specially equipped trucks, and much later via special satellite videophones in a briefcase. This technique

2146-473: The hardware and number of updates. Videotelephony can be categorized by its functionality and intended purpose, and also by its method of transmission. Videophones were the earliest form of videotelephony, dating back to initial tests in 1927 by AT&T. During the late 1930s, the post offices of several European governments established public videophone services for person-to-person communications using dual cable circuit telephone transmission technology. In

2204-424: The information being collected, however this creates a risk that the interviewer will be unable to be unbiased in their collection and interpretation of information. Bias can be created from the interviewer's perception of the interviewee, or the interviewee's perception of the interviewer. Additionally, a researcher can bring biases to the table based on the researcher's mental state, their preparedness for conducting

2262-614: The late 20th century was limited to the H.323 protocol (notably Cisco's SCCP implementation was an exception), but newer videophones often use SIP , which is often easier to set up in home networking environments. It is a text-based protocol, incorporating many elements of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). H.323 is still used, but more commonly for business videoconferencing, while SIP

2320-647: The market in 2006. As of the 2010s, high-definition resolution for videoconferencing became a popular feature, with most major suppliers in the videoconferencing market offering it. Technological developments by videoconferencing developers in the 2010s have extended the capabilities of videoconferencing systems beyond the boardroom for use with hand-held mobile devices that combine the use of video, audio and on-screen drawing capabilities broadcasting in real time over secure networks, independent of location. Mobile collaboration systems now allow people in previously unreachable locations, such as workers on an offshore oil rig,

2378-405: The present day have migrated almost exclusively to digital ISDN and IP transmission modes due to the need to convey the very large amounts of data generated by their cameras and microphones. These systems are often intended for use in conference mode, that is by many people in several different locations, all of whom can be viewed by every participant at each location. Telepresence systems are

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2436-418: The present day, standalone videophones and UMTS video-enabled mobile phones are usually used on a person-to-person basis. Videoconferencing saw its earliest use with AT&T's Picturephone service in the early 1970s. Transmissions were analog over short distances, but converted to digital forms for longer calls, again using telephone transmission technology. Popular corporate video-conferencing systems in

2494-476: The problem they are studying. Videoconferencing Videotelephony (also known as videoconferencing or video calling ) is the use of audio and video for simultaneous two-way communication . Today, videotelephony is widespread. There are many terms to refer to videotelephony. Videophones are standalone devices for video calling (compare Telephone ). In the present day, devices like smartphones and computers are capable of video calling, reducing

2552-485: The release of the VP-210 Visual Phone, the first mobile colour videophone that also doubled as a camera phone for still photos. The camera phone was the same size as similar contemporary mobile phones , but sported a large camera lens and a 5 cm (2 inch) colour TFT display capable of displaying 65,000 colors, and was able to process two video frames per second. Videotelephony was popularized in

2610-400: The research, and the researcher conducting inappropriate interviews. Interviewers can use various practices known in qualitative research to mitigate interviewer bias. These practices include subjectivity , objectivity , and reflexivity . Each of these practices allows the interviewer, or researcher, the opportunity to use their bias to enhance their work by gaining a deeper understanding of

2668-505: The same time, usually with the exception that the viewer either does not see their own feed, or sees their own feed in miniature. Voice-Activated Switch selectively chooses a feed to display at each endpoint, with the goal of showing the person who is currently speaking. This is done by choosing the feed (other than the viewer) which has the loudest audio input (perhaps with some filtering to avoid switching for very short-lived volume spikes). Often, if no remote parties are currently speaking,

2726-400: The screen and camera in essentially the same place. In developed countries, the near-ubiquity of smartphones , tablet computers , and computers with built-in audio and webcams removes the need for expensive dedicated hardware. The core technology used in a videotelephony system is digital compression of audio and video streams in real time. The hardware or software that performs compression

2784-476: The systems has its own advantages and disadvantages, including video quality , capital cost , degrees of sophistication, transmission capacity requirements, and cost of use . From the least to the most expensive systems: Computer security experts have shown that poorly configured or inadequately supervised videoconferencing systems can permit an easy virtual entry by computer hackers and criminals into company premises and corporate boardrooms. For over

2842-455: The systems internally, where there is less risk of loss of customers. An alternative for those lacking dedicated facilities is the rental of videoconferencing-equipped meeting rooms in cities around the world. Clients can book rooms and turn up for the meeting, with all technical aspects being prearranged and support being readily available if needed. The issue of eye contact may be solved with advancing technology, including smartphones which have

2900-530: The telephone system remained under Post Office control until the 1980s. POTS was the standard service offering from telephone companies in the United States from 1876 until 1988 , when the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) Basic Rate Interface (BRI) was introduced, followed by the development of cellular telephone systems and voice over internet protocol (VoIP). Despite the advent of these technologies, POTS remains

2958-428: The time the telephone is taken off-hook . This is an often cited benchmark in marketing and systems-engineering comparisons, called the " five nines " reliability standard. It is equivalent to having a dial-tone available for all but about five minutes each year. However, POTS depends upon a hardwired connection from each household to the phone company. Many new housing developments are being offered which do not have such

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3016-601: The time were promoting a jointly developed desktop based videoconferencing product known as the PCS/1. Over the next 15 years, Project DIANE (Diversified Information and Assistance Network) grew to use a variety of videoconferencing platforms to create a multi-state cooperative public service and distance education network consisting of several hundred schools, libraries, science museums, zoos and parks, and many other community-oriented organizations. Advances in video compression allowed digital video streams to be transmitted over

3074-599: The upper echelons of government, business, and commerce, telepresence technology , an advanced form of videoconferencing, has helped reduce the need to travel. In May 2005, the first high definition videoconferencing systems, produced by Lifesize , were displayed at the Interop trade show in Las Vegas , Nevada , able to provide video at 30 frames per second with a 1280 by 720 display resolution . Polycom introduced its first high definition videoconferencing system to

3132-411: The use of the telephone. A number of organizations believed that videotelephony would be superior to plain voice communications. Attempts at using normal telephony networks to transmit slow-scan video, such as the first systems developed by AT&T Corporation , first researched in the 1950s, failed mostly due to the poor picture quality and the lack of efficient video compression techniques. During

3190-500: The wide availability of traditional telephone services, new types of communications devices, such as modems and fax machines , were initially designed to use traditional analog telephony to transmit digital information. Although POTS provides limited features, low bandwidth , and no mobile capabilities, it provides greater reliability than other telephony systems (mobile phone, VoIP , etc.). Many telephone service providers attempt to achieve dial-tone availability more than 99.999% of

3248-511: The world. Applications of videotelephony include sign language transmission for deaf and speech-impaired people, distance education , telemedicine , and overcoming mobility issues . News media organizations have used videotelephony for broadcasting. The concept of videotelephony was first conceived in the late 1870s, both in the United States and in Europe, although the basic sciences to permit its very earliest trials would take nearly

3306-599: Was the German Reich Postzentralamt (post office) videotelephone network serving Berlin and several German cities via coaxial cables between 1936 and 1940. The development of videotelephony as a subscription service started in the latter half of the 1920s in the United Kingdom and the United States, spurred notably by John Logie Baird and AT&T's Bell Labs . This occurred in part, at least with AT&T, to serve as an adjunct supplementing

3364-420: Was very expensive, though, and was not adopted for applications such as telemedicine , distance education , and business meetings. Decades of research and development culminated in the 1970 commercial launch of AT&T's Picturephone service, available in select cities. However, the system was a commercial failure, chiefly due to consumer apathy, high subscription costs, and lack of network effect —with only

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