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107-467: Ruby is dynamically typed and uses garbage collection and just-in-time compilation . It supports multiple programming paradigms, including procedural , object-oriented , and functional programming . According to the creator, Ruby was influenced by Perl , Smalltalk , Eiffel , Ada , BASIC , Java , and Lisp . Matsumoto has said that Ruby was conceived in 1993. In a 1999 post to the ruby-talk mailing list, he describes some of his early ideas about

214-475: A dependent type or an effect system , which enables even more program specifications to be verified by a type checker. Beyond simple value-type pairs, a virtual "region" of code is associated with an "effect" component describing what is being done with what , and enabling for example to "throw" an error report. Thus the symbolic system may be a type and effect system , which endows it with more safety checking than type checking alone. Whether automated by

321-618: A Shadow Shogun . Unlike his European counterparts , the emperor is not the source of sovereign power and the government does not act under his name. Instead, the emperor represents the state and appoints other high officials in the name of the state, in which the Japanese people hold sovereignty. Article 5 of the Constitution, in accordance with the Imperial Household Law , allows a regency to be established in

428-402: A floating-point value , then the wrong result will be computed by the invoked function. The C compiler checks the types of the arguments passed to a function when it is called against the types of the parameters declared in the function's definition. If the types do not match, the compiler throws a compile-time error or warning. A compiler may also use the static type of a value to optimize

535-651: A generalissimo . Although the Emperor was the sovereign who appointed the Shōgun, his roles were ceremonial and he took no part in governing the country. This is often compared to the present role of the Emperor, whose official role is to appoint the Prime Minister. The return of political power to the Emperor (to the Imperial Court) in 1868 meant the resignation of Shōgun Tokugawa Yoshinobu , agreeing to "be

642-578: A multi-paradigm programming language : it allows procedural programming (defining functions/variables outside classes makes them part of the root, 'self' Object), with object orientation (everything is an object) or functional programming (it has anonymous functions , closures , and continuations ; statements all have values, and functions return the last evaluation). It has support for introspection , reflective programming , metaprogramming , and interpreter-based threads . Ruby features dynamic typing , and supports parametric polymorphism . According to

749-423: A runtime error . To prove the absence of these defects, other kinds of formal methods , collectively known as program analyses , are in common use. Alternatively, a sufficiently expressive type system, such as in dependently typed languages, can prevent these kinds of errors (for example, expressing the type of non-zero numbers ). In addition, software testing is an empirical method for finding errors that such

856-433: A sigil . When used, the sigil changes the semantics of scope of the variable. For practical purposes there is no distinction between expressions and statements . Line breaks are significant and taken as the end of a statement; a semicolon may be equivalently used. Unlike Python, indentation is not significant. One of the differences from Python and Perl is that Ruby keeps all of its instance variables completely private to

963-576: A state of emergency , and may also dissolve the Diet's House of Representatives at will. The prime minister presides over the Cabinet and appoints, or dismisses, the other Cabinet ministers . Both houses of the National Diet designates the Prime Minister with a ballot cast under the run-off system. Under the Constitution, should both houses not agree on a common candidate, then a joint committee

1070-423: A type system is a logical system comprising a set of rules that assigns a property called a type (for example, integer , floating point , string ) to every term (a word, phrase, or other set of symbols). Usually the terms are various language constructs of a computer program , such as variables , expressions , functions , or modules . A type system dictates the operations that can be performed on

1177-565: A certain kind of value from being used with values of which that operation does not make sense (validity errors). Type systems allow defining interfaces between different parts of a computer program, and then checking that the parts have been connected in a consistent way. This checking can happen statically (at compile time ), dynamically (at run time ), or as a combination of both. Type systems have other purposes as well, such as expressing business rules, enabling certain compiler optimizations , allowing for multiple dispatch , and providing

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1284-608: A compaction GC, and separation of positional and keyword arguments. Ruby 3.0.0 was released on Christmas Day in 2020. It is known as Ruby 3x3 which means that programs would run three times faster in Ruby 3.0 comparing to Ruby 2.0. and some had already implemented in intermediate releases on the road from 2 to 3. To achieve 3x3, Ruby 3 comes with MJIT, and later YJIT, Just-In-Time Compilers, to make programs faster, although they are described as experimental and remain disabled by default (enabled by flags at runtime). Another goal of Ruby 3.0

1391-400: A data type, termed typing , gives meaning to a sequence of bits such as a value in memory or some object such as a variable . The hardware of a general purpose computer is unable to discriminate between for example a memory address and an instruction code , or between a character , an integer , or a floating-point number , because it makes no intrinsic distinction between any of

1498-801: A dynamic check is needed to verify that the operation is safe. This requirement is one of the criticisms of downcasting. By definition, dynamic type checking may cause a program to fail at runtime. In some programming languages, it is possible to anticipate and recover from these failures. In others, type-checking errors are considered fatal. Programming languages that include dynamic type checking but not static type checking are often called "dynamically typed programming languages". Some languages allow both static and dynamic typing. For example, Java and some other ostensibly statically typed languages support downcasting types to their subtypes , querying an object to discover its dynamic type and other type operations that depend on runtime type information. Another example

1605-405: A form of documentation . An example of a simple type system is that of the C language . The portions of a C program are the function definitions. One function is invoked by another function. The interface of a function states the name of the function and a list of parameters that are passed to the function's code. The code of an invoking function states the name of the invoked, along with

1712-475: A language can be statically typed without requiring type declarations (examples include Haskell , Scala , OCaml , F# , Swift , and to a lesser extent C# and C++ ), so explicit type declaration is not a necessary requirement for static typing in all languages. Dynamic typing allows constructs that some (simple) static type checking would reject as illegal. For example, eval functions, which execute arbitrary data as code, become possible. An eval function

1819-513: A line of code divides two integers, and is passed a string of letters instead of an integer. It is an unintended condition which might manifest in multiple stages of a program's development. Thus a facility for detection of the error is needed in the type system. In some languages, such as Haskell , for which type inference is automated, lint might be available to its compiler to aid in the detection of error. Type safety contributes to program correctness , but might only guarantee correctness at

1926-469: A more finely grained rule set than basic type checking, but this comes at a price when the type inferences (and other properties) become undecidable , and when more attention must be paid by the programmer to annotate code or to consider computer-related operations and functioning. It is challenging to find a sufficiently expressive type system that satisfies all programming practices in a type safe manner. A programming language compiler can also implement

2033-409: A personal standard in evaluating surprise. If that personal standard remains consistent, there would be few surprises for those familiar with the standard. Matsumoto defined it this way in an interview: Everyone has an individual background. Someone may come from Python, someone else may come from Perl, and they may be surprised by different aspects of the language. Then they come up to me and say, 'I

2140-818: A reference whose static target type (or manifest type) is equal to either the object's run-time type (its latent type) or a supertype thereof. This is conformant with the Liskov substitution principle , which states that all operations performed on an instance of a given type can also be performed on an instance of a subtype. This concept is also known as subsumption or subtype polymorphism . In some languages subtypes may also possess covariant or contravariant return types and argument types respectively. Certain languages, for example Clojure , Common Lisp , or Cython are dynamically type checked by default, but allow programs to opt into static type checking by providing optional annotations. One reason to use such hints would be to optimize

2247-532: A standard library module, while the YJIT, a Rust -based JIT compiler now supports more architectures on Linux. Ruby 3.3 was released on December 25, 2023. Ruby 3.3 introduces significant enhancements and performance improvements to the language. Key features include the introduction of the Prism parser for portable and maintainable parsing, the addition of the pure-Ruby JIT compiler RJIT, and major performance boosts in

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2354-420: A static type checker. The reason for this is that many useful features or properties are difficult or impossible to verify statically. For example, suppose that a program defines two types, A and B, where B is a subtype of A. If the program tries to convert a value of type A to type B, which is known as downcasting , then the operation is legal only if the value being converted is actually a value of type B. Thus,

2461-407: A strict sense. Static type checking is the process of verifying the type safety of a program based on analysis of a program's text ( source code ). If a program passes a static type checker, then the program is guaranteed to satisfy some set of type safety properties for all possible inputs. Static type checking can be considered a limited form of program verification (see type safety ), and in

2568-665: A surrounding do-end block (less need for extra begin-end blocks), method-chaining with yield_self , support for branch coverage and method coverage measurement, and easier Hash transformations with Hash#slice and Hash#transform_keys On top of that come a lot of performance improvements like faster block passing (3 times faster), faster Mutexes, faster ERB templates and improvements on some concatenation methods. A few notable changes in Ruby 2.6.0 include an experimental just-in-time compiler (JIT), and RubyVM::AbstractSyntaxTree (experimental). A few notable changes in Ruby 2.7.0 include pattern Matching (experimental), REPL improvements,

2675-479: A term of four years or less; with no limits imposed on the number of terms the Prime Minister may hold. The Prime Minister heads the Cabinet and exercises "control and supervision" of the executive branch, and is the head of government and commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces . The prime minister is vested with the power to present bills to the Diet, to sign laws, to declare

2782-436: A term. For variables, the type system determines the allowed values of that term. Type systems formalize and enforce the otherwise implicit categories the programmer uses for algebraic data types , data structures , or other data types , such as "string", "array of float", "function returning boolean". Type systems are often specified as part of programming languages and built into interpreters and compilers , although

2889-467: A type checker would not detect. The process of verifying and enforcing the constraints of types— type checking —may occur at compile time (a static check) or at run-time (a dynamic check). If a language specification requires its typing rules strongly, more or less allowing only those automatic type conversions that do not lose information, one can refer to the process as strongly typed; i f not, as weakly typed . The terms are not usually used in

2996-447: A type-safe language, can also be considered an optimization. If a compiler can prove that a program is well-typed, then it does not need to emit dynamic safety checks, allowing the resulting compiled binary to run faster and to be smaller. Static type checking for Turing-complete languages is inherently conservative. That is, if a type system is both sound (meaning that it rejects all incorrect programs) and decidable (meaning that it

3103-436: A type. Even a type can become associated with a type. An implementation of a type system could in theory associate identifications called data type (a type of a value), class (a type of an object), and kind (a type of a type , or metatype). These are the abstractions that typing can go through, on a hierarchy of levels contained in a system. When a programming language evolves a more elaborate type system, it gains

3210-636: A value between any two types that have the same size, effectively subverting the type concept. Dynamic type checking is the process of verifying the type safety of a program at runtime. Implementations of dynamically type-checked languages generally associate each runtime object with a type tag (i.e., a reference to a type) containing its type information. This runtime type information (RTTI) can also be used to implement dynamic dispatch , late binding , downcasting , reflective programming (reflection), and similar features. Most type-safe languages include some form of dynamic type checking, even if they also have

3317-410: A way to bypass the type checker. Some languages allow programmers to choose between static and dynamic type safety. For example, historically C# declares variables statically, but C# 4.0 introduces the dynamic keyword, which is used to declare variables to be checked dynamically at runtime. Other languages allow writing code that is not type-safe; for example, in C , programmers can freely cast

Ruby (programming language) - Misplaced Pages Continue

3424-506: Is C++ RTTI . More generally, most programming languages include mechanisms for dispatching over different 'kinds' of data, such as disjoint unions , runtime polymorphism , and variant types . Even when not interacting with type annotations or type checking, such mechanisms are materially similar to dynamic typing implementations. See programming language for more discussion of the interactions between static and dynamic typing. Objects in object-oriented languages are usually accessed by

3531-423: Is object-oriented : every value is an object, including classes and instances of types that many other languages designate as primitives (such as integers , Booleans, and " null "). Because everything in Ruby is an object, everything in Ruby has certain built-in abilities called methods. Every function is a method and methods are always called on an object. Methods defined at the top level scope become methods of

3638-599: Is 7.8% at the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, 8% at the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, and only 1.3% at the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. On 12 February 2021, Tetsushi Sakamoto was appointed as the Minister of Loneliness to alleviate social isolation and loneliness across different age groups and genders. The emperor of Japan is the head of the Imperial Family and

3745-607: Is a series of ministry-affiliated government agencies and bureaus responsible for government procedures and activities as of 23 August 2022. The legislative branch organ of Japan is the National Diet ( 国会 ) . It is a bicameral legislature, composing of a lower house, the House of Representatives , and an upper house, the House of Councillors . Empowered by the Constitution to be "the highest organ of State power" and

3852-400: Is allowed to be established to agree on the matter; specifically within a period of ten days, exclusive of the period of recess. However, if both houses still do not agree to each other, the decision made by the House of Representatives is deemed to be that of the National Diet. Upon designation, the Prime Minister is presented with their commission, and then formally appointed to office by

3959-647: Is ceremonial and he has no powers related to the Government. Instead, it is the Cabinet , comprising the Prime Minister and the Ministers of State , that directs and controls the government and the civil service . The Cabinet has the executive power and is formed by the prime minister, who is the head of government . The Prime Minister is nominated by the National Diet and appointed to office by

4066-427: Is increased. Advocates of dependent typing , implemented in languages such as Dependent ML and Epigram , have suggested that almost all bugs can be considered type errors, if the types used in a program are properly declared by the programmer or correctly inferred by the compiler. Static typing usually results in compiled code that executes faster. When the compiler knows the exact data types that are in use (which

4173-500: Is necessary for static verification, either through declaration or inference) it can produce optimized machine code. Some dynamically typed languages such as Common Lisp allow optional type declarations for optimization for this reason. By contrast, dynamic typing may allow compilers to run faster and interpreters to dynamically load new code, because changes to source code in dynamically typed languages may result in less checking to perform and less code to revisit. This too may reduce

4280-402: Is possible to write an algorithm that determines whether a program is well-typed), then it must be incomplete (meaning there are correct programs, which are also rejected, even though they do not encounter runtime errors). For example, consider a program containing the code: Even if the expression <complex test> always evaluates to true at run-time, most type checkers will reject

4387-713: Is possible with static typing, but requires advanced uses of algebraic data types . Further, dynamic typing better accommodates transitional code and prototyping, such as allowing a placeholder data structure ( mock object ) to be transparently used in place of a full data structure (usually for the purposes of experimentation and testing). Dynamic typing typically allows duck typing (which enables easier code reuse ). Many languages with static typing also feature duck typing or other mechanisms like generic programming that also enable easier code reuse. Dynamic typing typically makes metaprogramming easier to use. For example, C++ templates are typically more cumbersome to write than

Ruby (programming language) - Misplaced Pages Continue

4494-818: Is still code based on it. Ruby 1.8 is only partially compatible with Ruby 1.9. Ruby 1.8 has been the subject of several industry standards. The language specifications for Ruby were developed by the Open Standards Promotion Center of the Information-Technology Promotion Agency (a Japanese government agency) for submission to the Japanese Industrial Standards Committee (JISC) and then to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It

4601-532: Is the central government of Japan . It consists of legislative , executive and judiciary branches and functions under the framework established by the Constitution of Japan , adopted in 1947 and written by American officials in the Allied occupation of Japan after World War II . Japan is a unitary state , containing forty-seven administrative divisions , with the Emperor as its head of state . His role

4708-461: Is the only person that has the authority to appoint the prime minister , even though the Diet has the power to designate the person fitted for the position. One such example can be prominently seen in the 2009 Dissolution of the House of Representatives . The House was expected to be dissolved on the advice of the prime minister, but was temporarily unable to do so for the next general election, as both

4815-450: Is to improve concurrency and two more utilities Fibre Scheduler, and experimental Ractor facilitate the goal. Ractor is light-weight and thread-safe as it is achieved by exchanging messages rather than shared objects. Ruby 3.0 introduces RBS language to describe the types of Ruby programs for static analysis . It is separated from general Ruby programs. There are some syntax enhancements and library changes in Ruby 3.0 as well. Ruby 3.1

4922-429: The Cabinet is the source of executive power and most of its power is exercised directly by the prime minister , several of its powers are exercised through the Emperor. The powers exercised via the Emperor, as stipulated by Article 7 of the Constitution, are: These powers are exercised in accordance with the binding advice of the Cabinet. The emperor is known to hold the nominal ceremonial authority. For example, he

5029-468: The Emperor . As a candidate designated by the Diet, the prime minister is required to report to the Diet whenever demanded. The prime minister must also be both a civilian and a member of either house of the Diet. The Cabinet of Japan ( 内閣 ) consists of the Ministers of State and the Prime Minister. The members of the Cabinet are appointed by the Prime Minister, and under the Cabinet Law,

5136-465: The House of Councilors being the upper house , and the House of Representatives being the lower house . The members of both houses of the Diet are directly elected by the people , who are the source of sovereignty . The Diet is defined as the supreme organ of sovereignty in the Constitution. The Supreme Court and other lower courts make up the Judicial branch and have all the judicial powers in

5243-737: The National Diet Building , the Imperial Palace , the Supreme Court, the Prime Minister's Office and the ministries are all located. Before the Meiji Restoration , Japan was ruled by the government of a successive military shōgun . During this period, effective power of the government resided in the Shōgun, who officially ruled the country in the name of the Emperor. The Shōgun were the hereditary military governors, with their modern rank equivalent to

5350-640: The Prussian model of the time. A new aristocracy known as the kazoku was established. It merged the ancient court nobility of the Heian period , the kuge , and the former daimyō , feudal lords subordinate to the shōgun . It also established the Imperial Diet , consisting of the House of Representatives and the House of Peers . Members of the House of Peers were made up of the Imperial Family ,

5457-575: The Cabinet cannot be subject to legal action without the consent of the Prime Minister; however, without impairing the right to take legal action. As of 14 December 2023, the makeup of the Cabinet: The ministries of Japan ( 中央省庁 , Chuo shōcho ) consist of eleven executive ministries and the Cabinet Office . Each ministry is headed by a Minister of State , which are mainly senior legislators, and are appointed from among

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5564-513: The Emperor and Empress were visiting Canada . In this manner, the emperor 's modern role is often compared to those of the Shogunate period and much of Japan's history , whereby the emperor held great symbolic authority but had little political power ; which is often held by others nominally appointed by the emperor himself. Today, a legacy has somewhat continued for a retired prime minister who still wields considerable power, to be called

5671-473: The Emperor. The current cabinet is Second Ishiba Cabinet , was formed on 11 November 2024, is led by the prime minister Shigeru Ishiba who assumed office on 1 October 2024. The country has had a Liberal Democratic – Komeito coalition minority government since 2024 . The National Diet is the legislature , the organ of the Legislative branch. The Diet is bicameral , consisting of two houses with

5778-540: The Kazoku, and those nominated by the Emperor, while members of the House of Representatives were elected by direct male suffrage. Despite clear distinctions between powers of the executive branch and the Emperor in the Meiji Constitution, ambiguity and contradictions in the Constitution eventually led to a political crisis . It also devalued the notion of civilian control over the military , which meant that

5885-546: The Object class. Since this class is an ancestor of every other class, such methods can be called on any object. They are also visible in all scopes, effectively serving as "global" procedures. Ruby supports inheritance with dynamic dispatch , mixins and singleton methods (belonging to, and defined for, a single instance rather than being defined on the class). Though Ruby does not support multiple inheritance , classes can import modules as mixins. Ruby has been described as

5992-410: The Prime Minister to appoint some non-elected Diet officials. The Cabinet is required to resign en masse while still continuing its functions, till the appointment of a new Prime Minister, when the following situation arises: Conceptually deriving legitimacy from the Diet, whom it is responsible to, the Cabinet exercises its power in two different ways. In practice, much of its power is exercised by

6099-423: The Prime Minister, while others are exercised nominally by the Emperor. Article 73 of the Constitution of Japan expects the Cabinet to perform the following functions, in addition to general administration: Under the Constitution, all laws and cabinet orders must be signed by the competent Minister and countersigned by the Prime Minister, before being formally promulgated by the Emperor . Also, all members of

6206-468: The Ruby FAQ, the syntax is similar to Perl 's and the semantics are similar to Smalltalk's , but the design philosophy differs greatly from Python 's. The syntax of Ruby is broadly similar to that of Perl and Python . Class and method definitions are signaled by keywords, whereas code blocks can be defined by either keywords or braces. In contrast to Perl, variables are not obligatorily prefixed with

6313-998: The Ruby License and the GPL to being dual-licensed under the Ruby License and the two-clause BSD license. Adoption of 1.9 was slowed by changes from 1.8 that required many popular third party gems to be rewritten. Ruby 1.9 introduces many significant changes over the 1.8 series. Examples include: Ruby 2.0 was intended to be fully backward compatible with Ruby 1.9.3. As of the official 2.0.0 release on February 24, 2013, there were only five known (minor) incompatibilities. Ruby 2.0 added several new features, including: Starting with 2.1.0, Ruby's versioning policy changed to be more similar to semantic versioning . Ruby 2.2.0 includes speed-ups, bugfixes, and library updates and removes some deprecated APIs. Most notably, Ruby 2.2.0 introduces changes to memory handling – an incremental garbage collector, support for garbage collection of symbols and

6420-435: The YJIT compiler. Additionally, improvements in memory usage, the introduction of an M:N thread scheduler, and updates to the standard library contribute to a more efficient and developer-friendly Ruby ecosystem. Matsumoto has said that Ruby is designed for programmer productivity and fun, following the principles of good user interface design. At a Google Tech Talk in 2008 he said, "I hope to see Ruby help every programmer in

6527-517: The application of the machines. We are the masters. They are the slaves. Matsumoto has said his primary design goal was to make a language that he himself enjoyed using, by minimizing programmer work and possible confusion. He has said that he had not applied the principle of least astonishment (POLA) to the design of Ruby; in a May 2005 discussion on the newsgroup comp.lang.ruby, Matsumoto attempted to distance Ruby from POLA, explaining that because any design choice will be surprising to someone, he uses

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6634-460: The ceremonial head of state . He is defined by the Constitution to be "the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people". However, his role is entirely ceremonial and representative in nature. As explicitly stated in article 4 of the Constitution, he has no powers related to government. Article 6 of the Constitution of Japan delegates the Emperor the following ceremonial roles: While

6741-408: The class and only exposes them through accessor methods ( attr_writer , attr_reader , etc.). Unlike the "getter" and "setter" methods of other languages like C++ or Java , accessor methods in Ruby can be created with a single line of code via metaprogramming ; however, accessor methods can also be created in the traditional fashion of C++ and Java. As invocation of these methods does not require

6848-445: The combination of all places where values are created and all places where a certain value is used must be taken into account. A number of useful and common programming language features cannot be checked statically, such as downcasting . Thus, many languages will have both static and dynamic type checking; the static type checker verifies what it can, and dynamic checks verify the rest. Many languages with static type checking provide

6955-399: The compiler or specified by a programmer, a type system renders program behavior illegal if it falls outside the type-system rules. Advantages provided by programmer-specified type systems include: Advantages provided by compiler-specified type systems include: A type error occurs when an operation receives a different type of data than it expected. For example, a type error would happen if

7062-468: The cost of making the type checking itself an undecidable problem (as in the Halting problem ). In a type system with automated type checking, a program may prove to run incorrectly yet produce no compiler errors. Division by zero is an unsafe and incorrect operation, but a type checker which only runs at compile time does not scan for division by zero in most languages; that division would surface as

7169-490: The differences between type systems that lead people to call them "strong" or "weak". Government of Japan Naruhito [REDACTED] Fumihito [REDACTED] Shigeru Ishiba ( LDP ) Second Ishiba Cabinet ( LDP – Komeito coalition ) [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Fukushiro Nukaga Kōichirō Genba [REDACTED] Masakazu Sekiguchi Hiroyuki Nagahama Saburo Tokura Kazuo Ueda The Government of Japan

7276-427: The edit-compile-test-debug cycle. Statically typed languages that lack type inference (such as C and Java prior to version 10 ) require that programmers declare the types that a method or function must use. This can serve as added program documentation, that is active and dynamic, instead of static. This allows a compiler to prevent it from drifting out of synchrony, and from being ignored by programmers. However,

7383-583: The emperor's name, should the emperor be unable to perform his duties. On November 20, 1989, the Supreme Court ruled it doesn't have judicial power over the emperor . The Imperial House of Japan is said to be the oldest continuing hereditary monarchy in the world. According to the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki , Japan was founded by the Imperial House in 660 BC by Emperor Jimmu. Emperor Jimmu

7490-468: The equivalent Ruby or Python code since C++ has stronger rules regarding type definitions (for both functions and variables). This forces a developer to write more boilerplate code for a template than a Python developer would need to. More advanced run-time constructs such as metaclasses and introspection are often harder to use in statically typed languages. In some languages, such features may also be used e.g. to generate new types and behaviors on

7597-487: The era name of Reiwa. Fumihito is the heir presumptive to the Chrysanthemum Throne . The executive branch of Japan is headed by the prime minister . The prime minister is the head of the Cabinet , and is designated by the legislative organ, the National Diet . The Cabinet consists of the Ministers of State and may be appointed or dismissed by the Prime Minister at any time. Explicitly defined to be

7704-586: The first article about Ruby was published on the Web. In the same year, Matsumoto was hired by netlab.jp to work on Ruby as a full-time developer. In 1998, the Ruby Application Archive was launched by Matsumoto, along with a simple English-language homepage for Ruby. In 1999, the first English language mailing list ruby-talk began, which signaled a growing interest in the language outside Japan. In this same year, Matsumoto and Keiju Ishitsuka wrote

7811-567: The first book on Ruby, The Object-oriented Scripting Language Ruby (オブジェクト指向スクリプト言語 Ruby), which was published in Japan in October 1999. It would be followed in the early 2000s by around 20 books on Ruby published in Japanese. By 2000, Ruby was more popular than Python in Japan. In September 2000, the first English language book Programming Ruby was printed, which was later freely released to

7918-450: The fly, based on run-time data. Such advanced constructs are often provided by dynamic programming languages ; many of these are dynamically typed, although dynamic typing need not be related to dynamic programming languages . Languages are often colloquially referred to as strongly typed or weakly typed . In fact, there is no universally accepted definition of what these terms mean. In general, there are more precise terms to represent

8025-409: The implementation to use a private instance variable exposed through a property descriptor, code internal to the class may need to be adjusted to use the private variable rather than the public property. Ruby's design forces all instance variables to be private, but also provides a simple way to declare set and get methods. This is in keeping with the idea that in Ruby, one never directly accesses

8132-628: The instrument for carrying out" the Emperor's orders. This event restored the country to Imperial rule and the proclamation of the Empire of Japan . In 1889, the Meiji Constitution was adopted in a move to strengthen Japan to the level of western nations, resulting in the first parliamentary system in Asia. It provided a form of mixed constitutional - absolute monarchy (a semi-constitutional monarchy ), with an independent judiciary, based on

8239-484: The internal members of a class from outside the class; rather, one passes a message to the class and receives a response. The original Ruby interpreter is often referred to as Matz's Ruby Interpreter or MRI. This implementation is written in C and uses its own Ruby-specific virtual machine . The standardized and retired Ruby 1.8 implementation was written in C , as a single-pass interpreted language . Starting with Ruby 1.9, and continuing with Ruby 2.x and above,

8346-575: The language. As a language maniac and OO fan for 15 years, I really wanted a genuine object-oriented, easy-to-use scripting language. I looked for but couldn't find one. So I decided to make it. Matsumoto describes the design of Ruby as being like a simple Lisp language at its core, with an object system like that of Smalltalk, blocks inspired by higher-order functions , and practical utility like that of Perl. The name "Ruby" originated during an online chat session between Matsumoto and Keiju Ishitsuka on February 24, 1993, before any code had been written for

8453-446: The language. Initially two names were proposed: " Coral " and " Ruby ". Matsumoto chose the latter in a later e-mail to Ishitsuka. Matsumoto later noted a factor in choosing the name "Ruby"–it was the birthstone of one of his colleagues. The first public release of Ruby 0.95 was announced on Japanese domestic newsgroups on December 21, 1995. Subsequently, three more versions of Ruby were released in two days. The release coincided with

8560-446: The language: I was talking with my colleague about the possibility of an object-oriented scripting language. I knew Perl (Perl4, not Perl5), but I didn't like it really, because it had the smell of a toy language (it still has). The object-oriented language seemed very promising. I knew Python then. But I didn't like it, because I didn't think it was a true object-oriented language – OO features appeared to be add-on to

8667-555: The launch of the Japanese-language ruby-list mailing list, which was the first mailing list for the new language. Already present at this stage of development were many of the features familiar in later releases of Ruby, including object-oriented design, classes with inheritance, mixins , iterators , closures , exception handling and garbage collection . After the release of Ruby 0.95 in 1995, several stable versions of Ruby were released in these years: In 1997,

8774-511: The manner of their evaluation affect the typing of the language. A programming language may further associate an operation with various resolutions for each type, in the case of type polymorphism . Type theory is the study of type systems. The concrete types of some programming languages, such as integers and strings, depend on practical issues of computer architecture , compiler implementation, and language design . Formally, type theory studies type systems. A programming language must have

8881-424: The members of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister. The Cabinet Office, formally headed by the Prime Minister, is an agency that handles the day-to-day affairs of the Cabinet. The ministries are the most influential part of the daily-exercised executive power, and since few ministers serve for more than a year or so necessary to grab hold of the organisation, most of its power lies within the senior bureaucrats . Below

8988-526: The military could develop and exercise a great influence on politics. Following the end of World War II , the present Constitution of Japan was adopted. It replaced the previous Imperial rule with a form of Western-style liberal democracy . As of 2020, the Japan Research Institute found the national government is mostly analog, because only 7.5% (4,000 of the 55,000) administrative procedures can be completed entirely online. The rate

9095-411: The names of variables that hold values to pass to it. During a computer program 's execution, the values are placed into temporary storage, then execution jumps to the code of the invoked function. The invoked function's code accesses the values and makes use of them. If the instructions inside the function are written with the assumption of receiving an integer value, but the calling code passed

9202-414: The number of members of the Cabinet appointed, excluding the Prime Minister, must be fourteen or less, but may only be increased to nineteen should a special need arise. Article 68 of the Constitution states that all members of the Cabinet must be civilians and the majority of them must be chosen from among the members of either house of the National Diet . The precise wording leaves an opportunity for

9309-626: The official Ruby interpreter has been YARV ("Yet Another Ruby VM"), and this implementation has superseded the slower virtual machine used in previous releases of MRI. As of 2018, there are a number of alternative implementations of Ruby, including JRuby , Rubinius , and mruby . Each takes a different approach, with JRuby and Rubinius providing just-in-time compilation and mruby also providing ahead-of-time compilation . Ruby has three major alternative implementations: Other Ruby implementations include: Other now defunct Ruby implementations were: Dynamic typing In computer programming ,

9416-437: The only "sole law-making organ of the State", its houses are both directly elected under a parallel voting system and is ensured by the Constitution to have no discrimination on the qualifications of each members; whether be it based on "race, creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or income". The National Diet, therefore, reflects the sovereignty of the people; a principle of popular sovereignty whereby

9523-452: The opportunity to type check using the type system whether at compile time or runtime, manually annotated or automatically inferred. As Mark Manasse concisely put it: The fundamental problem addressed by a type theory is to ensure that programs have meaning. The fundamental problem caused by a type theory is that meaningful programs may not have meanings ascribed to them. The quest for richer type systems results from this tension. Assigning

9630-1069: The option to compile directly against jemalloc. It also contains experimental support for using vfork (2) with system() and spawn(), and added support for the Unicode 7.0 specification. Since version 2.2.1, Ruby MRI performance on PowerPC64 was improved. Features that were made obsolete or removed include callcc, the DL library, Digest::HMAC, lib/rational.rb, lib/complex.rb, GServer, Logger::Application as well as various C API functions. Ruby 2.3.0 includes many performance improvements, updates, and bugfixes including changes to Proc#call, Socket and IO use of exception keywords, Thread#name handling, default passive Net::FTP connections, and Rake being removed from stdlib. Other notable changes include: Ruby 2.4.0 includes performance improvements to hash table, Array#max, Array#min, and instance variable access. Other notable changes include: A few notable changes in Ruby 2.5.0 include rescue and ensure statements automatically use

9737-502: The performance of critical sections of a program. This is formalized by gradual typing . The programming environment DrRacket , a pedagogic environment based on Lisp, and a precursor of the language Racket is also soft-typed. Conversely, as of version 4.0, the C# language provides a way to indicate that a variable should not be statically type checked. A variable whose type is dynamic will not be subject to static type checking. Instead,

9844-485: The possible values that a sequence of bits might mean . Associating a sequence of bits with a type conveys that meaning to the programmable hardware to form a symbolic system composed of that hardware and some program. A program associates each value with at least one specific type, but it also can occur that one value is associated with many subtypes . Other entities, such as objects , modules , communication channels , and dependencies can become associated with

9951-415: The program as ill-typed, because it is difficult (if not impossible) for a static analyzer to determine that the else branch will not be taken. Consequently, a static type checker will quickly detect type errors in rarely used code paths. Without static type checking, even code coverage tests with 100% coverage may be unable to find such type errors. The tests may fail to detect such type errors, because

10058-502: The program relies on runtime type information to determine how the variable may be used. In Rust , the dyn std :: any :: Any type provides dynamic typing of ' static types. The choice between static and dynamic typing requires certain trade-offs . Static typing can find type errors reliably at compile time, which increases the reliability of the delivered program. However, programmers disagree over how commonly type errors occur, resulting in further disagreements over

10165-409: The proportion of those bugs that are coded that would be caught by appropriately representing the designed types in code. Static typing advocates believe programs are more reliable when they have been well type-checked, whereas dynamic-typing advocates point to distributed code that has proven reliable and to small bug databases. The value of static typing increases as the strength of the type system

10272-547: The public, further widening the adoption of Ruby amongst English speakers. In early 2002, the English-language ruby-talk mailing list was receiving more messages than the Japanese-language ruby-list , demonstrating Ruby's increasing popularity in the non-Japanese speaking world. Ruby 1.8 was initially released August 2003, was stable for a long time, and was retired June 2013. Although deprecated, there

10379-421: The source of executive power , it is in practice, however, mainly exercised by the prime minister. The practice of its powers is responsible to the Diet, and as a whole, should the Cabinet lose confidence and support to be in office by the Diet, the Diet may dismiss the Cabinet en masse with a motion of no confidence . The Prime Minister of Japan ( 内閣総理大臣 ) is designated by the National Diet and serves

10486-418: The state. The Supreme Court has ultimate judicial authority to interpret the constitution and the power of judicial review . The judicial branch is independent from the executive and the legislative branches. Judges are nominated or appointed by the Cabinet and never removed by the executive or the legislature except during impeachment . The Government of Japan is based in the capital of Tokyo , where

10593-476: The storage it needs and the choice of algorithms for operations on the value. In many C compilers the float data type , for example, is represented in 32 bits , in accord with the IEEE specification for single-precision floating point numbers . They will thus use floating-point-specific microprocessor operations on those values (floating-point addition, multiplication, etc.). The depth of type constraints and

10700-430: The type system of a language can be extended by optional tools that perform added checks using the language's original type syntax and grammar . The main purpose of a type system in a programming language is to reduce possibilities for bugs in computer programs due to type errors . The given type system in question determines what constitutes a type error, but in general, the aim is to prevent operations expecting

10807-482: The use of parentheses, it is trivial to change an instance variable into a full function, without modifying a single line of calling code or having to do any refactoring achieving similar functionality to C# and VB.NET property members. Python's property descriptors are similar, but come with a trade-off in the development process. If one begins in Python by using a publicly exposed instance variable, and later changes

10914-574: The world to be productive, and to enjoy programming, and to be happy. That is the primary purpose of Ruby language." He stresses that systems design needs to emphasize human, rather than computer, needs: Often people, especially computer engineers, focus on the machines. They think, "By doing this, the machine will run fast. By doing this, the machine will run more effectively. By doing this, the machine will something something something." They are focusing on machines. But in fact we need to focus on humans, on how humans care about doing programming or operating

11021-406: Was accepted as a Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS X 3017) in 2011 and an international standard (ISO/IEC 30170) in 2012. Around 2005, interest in the Ruby language surged in tandem with Ruby on Rails , a web framework written in Ruby. Rails is frequently credited with increasing awareness of Ruby. Effective with Ruby 1.9.3, released October 31, 2011, Ruby switched from being dual-licensed under

11128-404: Was released on December 25, 2021. It includes YJIT, a new, experimental, Just-In-Time Compiler developed by Shopify , to enhance the performance of real world business applications. A new debugger is also included. There are some syntax enhancements and other improvements in this release. Network libraries for FTP , SMTP , IMAP , and POP are moved from default gems to bundled gems. Ruby 3.2

11235-570: Was released on December 25, 2022. It brings support for being run inside of a WebAssembly environment via a WASI interface. Regular expressions also receives some improvements, including a faster, memoized matching algorithm to protect against certain ReDoS attacks, and configurable timeouts for regular expression matching. Additional debugging and syntax features are also included in this release, which include syntax suggestion, as well as error highlighting. The MJIT compiler has been re-implemented as

11342-553: Was surprised by this feature of the language, so Ruby violates the principle of least surprise.' Wait. Wait. The principle of least surprise is not for you only. The principle of least surprise means principle of least my surprise. And it means the principle of least surprise after you learn Ruby very well. For example, I was a C++ programmer before I started designing Ruby. I programmed in C++ exclusively for two or three years. And after two years of C++ programming, it still surprises me. Ruby

11449-504: Was the first Emperor of Japan and the ancestor of all of the Emperors that followed. He is, according to Japanese mythology , the direct descendant of Amaterasu, the sun goddess of the native Shinto religion, through Ninigi , his great-grandfather. The current emperor of Japan is Naruhito . He was officially enthroned on May 1, 2019, following the abdication of his father. He is styled as His Imperial Majesty, and his reign bears

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