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68-449: The Indigo Book: An Open and Compatible Implementation of A Uniform System of Citation (formerly Baby Blue's Manual of Legal Citation ) is a free content version of the Bluebook system of legal citation . Founded by New York University professor Christopher Jon Sprigman, authored collectively by Sprigman and a group of NYU law students, and published by Public.Resource.Org , it

136-616: A free-content version of the Bluebook known as Baby Blue , which would be adapted from the public domain text of the 10th edition with "newly-created material that implements the Bluebook's system of citation in a fully usable form." Sprigman explained that "every person, including every poor person, should be able to cite the law. Imprisoned litigants, pro se litigants , legal clinics, small law firms and solo practitioners — all of them need better access to our system of legal citation if

204-449: A badge indicating that they are "approved for free cultural works". Repositories exist which exclusively feature free material and provide content such as photographs, clip art , music, and literature. While extensive reuse of free content from one website in another website is legal, it is usually not sensible because of the duplicate content problem. Misplaced Pages is amongst the most well-known databases of user-uploaded free content on

272-436: A cathedral; central planning, tight organization and one process from start to finish. The second is the progressive open-source development, which is more like "a great babbling bazaar of differing agendas and approaches out of which a coherent and stable system could seemingly emerge only by a succession of miracles." The latter analogy points to the discussion involved in an open-source development process. Differences between

340-491: A continuous build process and informs users about the parts of source code that have issues and on which platform(s) these issues arise. A debugger is a computer program that is used to debug (and sometimes test or optimize) other programs. GNU Debugger (GDB) is an example of a debugger used in open-source software development. This debugger offers remote debugging, what makes it especially applicable to open-source software development. A memory leak tool or memory debugger

408-489: A copy of the publication to perform intellectual property examinations under a presumption that it may be substantially similar to the copyrighted work. Sprigman objected to the trademark claims, feeling that "the idea they own the name 'blue' for a manual for legal citations is ridiculous." Following the threats, a group of over 120 Yale Law School students issued a letter in support of the Baby Blue project. In response to

476-402: A copyright holder's power to license their work, as copyleft which also utilizes copyright for such a purpose. The public domain is a range of creative works whose copyright has expired or was never established, as well as ideas and facts which are ineligible for copyright. A public domain work is a work whose author has either relinquished to the public or no longer can claim control over,

544-513: A definition would exclude the Open Content License because that license forbids charging for content; a right required by free and open-source software licenses. It has since come to describe a broader class of content without conventional copyright restrictions. The openness of content can be assessed under the '5Rs Framework' based on the extent to which it can be retained, reused, revised, remixed and redistributed by members of

612-409: A free way of obtaining higher education that is "focused on collective knowledge and the sharing and reuse of learning and scholarly content." There are multiple projects and organizations that promote learning through open content, including OpenCourseWare and Khan Academy . Some universities, like MIT , Yale , and Tufts are making their courses freely available on the internet. There are also

680-618: A number of organizations promoting the creation of openly licensed textbooks such as the University of Minnesota's Open Textbook Library, Connexions , OpenStax College , the Saylor Academy, Open Textbook Challenge, and Wikibooks . Any country has its own law and legal system, sustained by its legislation, which consists of documents. In a democratic country , laws are published as open content, in principle free content; but in general, there are no explicit licenses attributed for

748-537: A software developed by a large group of volunteers shall naturally tend to have developers spread across all time zones. Developers and users of an open-source project are not all necessarily working on the project in proximity. They require some electronic means of communications. Email is one of the most common forms of communication among open-source developers and users. Often, electronic mailing lists are used to make sure e-mail messages are delivered to all interested parties at once. This ensures that at least one of

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816-523: A successful project it is very important to investigate what's already there. The process starts with a choice between the adopting of an existing project, or the starting of a new project. If a new project is started, the process goes to the Initiation phase. If an existing project is adopted, the process goes directly to the Execution phase. Several types of open-source projects exist. First, there

884-476: A work. The aim of copyleft is to use the legal framework of copyright to enable non-author parties to be able to reuse and, in many licensing schemes, modify content that is created by an author. Unlike works in the public domain, the author still maintains copyright over the material, however, the author has granted a non-exclusive license to any person to distribute, and often modify, the work. Copyleft licenses require that any derivative works be distributed under

952-490: Is a programming tool for finding memory leaks and buffer overflows . A memory leak is a particular kind of unnecessary memory consumption by a computer program, where the program fails to release memory that is no longer needed. Examples of memory leak detection tools used by Mozilla are the XPCOM Memory Leak tools. Validation tools are used to check if pieces of code conform to the specified syntax. An example of

1020-563: Is an adaptation based on the 10th edition of the Bluebook as published by the Harvard Law Review Association in 1958, which had entered the public domain in the United States because its copyright had expired due to non-renewal . The project was inspired by correspondence between Public.Resource.Org's founder Carl Malamud and a Nagoya University academic, who was threatened by lawyers representing

1088-741: Is described as synonymous to the definitions of open/free in the Open Source Definition, the Free Software Definition, and the Definition of Free Cultural Works. A distinct difference is the focus given to the public domain, open access , and readable open formats . OKF recommends six conformant licenses: three of OKN's (Open Data Commons Public Domain Dedication and Licence, Open Data Commons Attribution License, Open Data Commons Open Database License ) and

1156-522: Is distributed via Internet to the general public. Publication of such resources may be either by a formal institution-wide program, or informally, by individual academics or departments. Open content publication has been seen as a method of reducing costs associated with information retrieval in research, as universities typically pay to subscribe for access to content that is published through traditional means. Subscriptions for non-free content journals may be expensive for universities to purchase, though

1224-450: Is need for tools to aid participants to collaborate in the development of source code. During early 2000s, Concurrent Versions System (CVS) was a prominent example of a source code collaboration tool being used in OSS projects. CVS helps manage the files and codes of a project when several people are working on the project at the same time. CVS allows several people to work on the same file at

1292-400: Is suitable for open-source software development because of the distributed development principle it adopts. Internet-Speed Development uses geographically distributed teams to ‘work around the clock’. This method, mostly adopted by large closed-source firms, (because they're the only ones which afford development centers in different time zones), works equally well in open source projects because

1360-645: Is the garden variety of software programs and libraries, which consist of standalone pieces of code. Some might even be dependent on other open-source projects. These projects serve a specified purpose and fill a definite need. Examples of this type of project include the Linux kernel , the Firefox web browser and the LibreOffice office suite of tools. Distributions are another type of open-source project. Distributions are collections of software that are published from

1428-975: Is used by the Wikimedia Foundation . In 2009, the Attribution and Attribution-ShareAlike Creative Commons licenses were marked as "Approved for Free Cultural Works". Another successor project is the Open Knowledge Foundation , founded by Rufus Pollock in Cambridge , in 2004 as a global non-profit network to promote and share open content and data. In 2007 the OKF gave an Open Knowledge Definition for "content such as music, films, books; data be it scientific, historical, geographic or otherwise; government and other administrative information". In October 2014 with version 2.0 Open Works and Open Licenses were defined and "open"

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1496-436: Is very similar to open content . An analogy is a use of the rival terms free software and open-source, which describe ideological differences rather than legal ones. The term Open Source, by contrast, sought to encompass them all in one movement. For instance, the Open Knowledge Foundation 's Open Definition describes "open" as synonymous with the definition of free in the "Definition of Free Cultural Works" (as also in

1564-505: The CC BY , CC BY-SA , and CC0 Creative Commons licenses. Open-source software development In 1997, Eric S. Raymond wrote The Cathedral and the Bazaar . In this book, Raymond makes the distinction between two kinds of software development. The first is the conventional closed-source development. This kind of development method is, according to Raymond, like the building of

1632-615: The BSD derivatives, maintain the source code of an entire operating system, the kernel and all of its core components, in one revision control system; developing the entire system together as a single team. These operating system development projects closely integrate their tools, more so than in the other distribution-based systems. Finally, there is the book or standalone document project. These items usually do not ship as part of an open-source software package. The Linux Documentation Project hosts many such projects that document various aspects of

1700-399: The Bluebook, asserted that the Bluebook 's inclusion of "carefully curated examples, explanations and other textual materials" made it a copyrighted work. Carl Malamud , head of the organization Public.Resource.Org , was informed by Bennett about the refusals. New York University School of Law professor Christopher Jon Sprigman caught wind of Malamud's correspondence; he had argued that

1768-538: The Linux kernel , and Mercurial , used by the Python programming language. Most large-scale projects require a bug tracking system to keep track of the status of various issues in the development of the project. Since OSS projects undergo frequent integration, tools that help automate testing during system integration are used. An example of such tool is Tinderbox. Tinderbox enables participants in an OSS project to detect errors during system integration. Tinderbox runs

1836-566: The Open Content Project , describing works licensed under the Open Content License (a non-free share-alike license, see 'Free content' below) and other works licensed under similar terms. The website of the Open Content Project once defined open content as 'freely available for modification, use and redistribution under a license similar to those used by the open-source / free software community'. However, such

1904-537: The Open Source Definition and Free Software Definition ). For such free/open content both movements recommend the same three Creative Commons licenses , the CC BY, CC BY-SA, and CC0. Copyright is a legal concept, which gives the author or creator of a work legal control over the duplication and public performance of their work. In many jurisdictions, this is limited by a time period after which

1972-454: The meta-modeling and meta-process modeling techniques. There are several ways in which work on an open-source project can start: Eric Raymond observed in his essay The Cathedral and the Bazaar that announcing the intent for a project is usually inferior to releasing a working project to the public. It's a common mistake to start a project when contributing to an existing similar project would be more effective ( NIH syndrome ) . To start

2040-473: The public domain and also those copyrighted works whose licenses honor and uphold the definition of free cultural work. In most countries, the Berne Convention grants copyright holders control over their creations by default. Therefore, copyrighted content must be explicitly declared free by the authors, which is usually accomplished by referencing or including licensing statements from within

2108-541: The 10th edition of the Bluebook , published in 1958, had fallen into the public domain because its copyright had not been renewed , as required by U.S. law at the time. On October 6, 2014, Sprigman sent a letter of response to the Harvard Law Review Association, disclosing these findings and arguing that the content of the then-current 19th edition was nearly identical to the 10th barring trivial changes. Thus, he also announced an intent to publish

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2176-495: The American public would be entrusted to a group so small, unrepresentative, closed to input, and beyond both supervision and discipline?" In December 2015, following Twitter postings by Malamud teasing the upcoming release of Baby Blue , the Harvard Law Review Association threatened legal action against the project, as it believed that the name Baby Blue had a confusing similarity to the "Bluebook" trademark , and requested

2244-548: The HLRA felt was too similar to the Bluebook trademark. These threats led to the renaming of the guide to The Indigo Book in March 2016. Nagoya University Graduate School of Law academic Frank Bennett had wished to include support for the Bluebook —a widely used system of legal citations, into the open source citation management software Zotero . However, lawyers representing the Harvard Law Review Association , who publishes

2312-441: The HLRA over plans to incorporate the Bluebook system into the open source citation management program Zotero . Sprigman has argued that the system of citation expressed in the Bluebook was effectively public domain because its mandated usage in courts made it an " edict of government ", and because, barring trivial changes, the then-current 19th edition was nearly identical to the public domain 10th edition. Sprigman stated that

2380-451: The Linux operating system. There are many other examples of this type of open-source project. It is hard to run an open-source project following a more traditional software development method like the waterfall model , because in these traditional methods it is not allowed to go back to a previous phase. In open-source software development, requirements are rarely gathered before the start of

2448-794: The US National Institutes of Health , Research Councils UK (effective 2016) and the European Union (effective 2020). At an institutional level, some universities, such as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , have adopted open access publishing by default by introducing their own mandates. Some mandates may permit delayed publication and may charge researchers for open access publishing. For teaching purposes, some universities, including MIT , provide freely available course content, such as lecture notes, video resources and tutorials. This content

2516-476: The articles are written and peer-reviewed by academics themselves at no cost to the publisher. This has led to disputes between publishers and some universities over subscription costs, such as the one that occurred between the University of California and the Nature Publishing Group . Free and open content has been used to develop alternative routes towards higher education. Open content is

2584-567: The automotive industry, and even agricultural areas. Technologies such as distributed manufacturing can allow computer-aided manufacturing and computer-aided design techniques to be able to develop small-scale production of components for the development of new, or repair of existing, devices. Rapid fabrication technologies underpin these developments, which allow end-users of technology to be able to construct devices from pre-existing blueprints, using software and manufacturing hardware to convert information into physical objects. In academic work,

2652-820: The community is very harsh, much like the business world of closed-source software: “if you find the customers you survive, but without customers you die”. Fuggetta argues that “rapid prototyping, incremental and evolutionary development, spiral lifecycle, rapid application development, and, recently, extreme programming and the agile software process can be equally applied to proprietary and open source software”. He also pinpoints Extreme Programming as an extremely useful method for open source software development. More generally, all Agile programming methods are applicable to open-source software development, because of their iterative and incremental character. Other Agile methods are equally useful for both open and closed source software development: Internet-Speed Development , for example

2720-555: The cost of publication and reduced the entry barrier sufficiently to allow for the production of widely disseminated materials by individuals or small groups. Projects to provide free literature and multimedia content have become increasingly prominent owing to the ease of dissemination of materials that are associated with the development of computer technology. Such dissemination may have been too costly prior to these technological developments. In media, which includes textual, audio, and visual content, free licensing schemes such as some of

2788-456: The development team spending a lot of time on these issues, and not on the actual development. Also, in closed-source projects, the development teams must often work under management-related constraints (such as deadlines, budgets, etc.) that interfere with technical issues of the software. In open-source software development, these issues are solved by integrating the users of the software in the development process, or even letting these users build

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2856-413: The distribution and usage of the work. As such, any person may manipulate, distribute, or otherwise use the work, without legal ramifications. A work in the public domain or released under a permissive license may be referred to as "copycenter". Copyleft is a play on the word copyright and describes the practice of using copyright law to remove restrictions on distributing copies and modified versions of

2924-552: The latter must be available for commercial use by the public. However, it is similar to several definitions for open educational resources, which include resources under noncommercial and verbatim licenses. In 2003, David Wiley announced that the Open Content Project had been succeeded by Creative Commons and their licenses; Wiley joined as "Director of Educational Licenses". In 2005, the Open Icecat project

2992-420: The law is to work for them and for their clients. And that means free access." Sprigman also stated that the use of an open-source development model and licensing would allow others to contribute to and help improve the system; he argued that the Bluebook in its current form was "over-prescriptive and rigid" and "a barrier to entry to our legal system", going on to ask, "what other standard of this importance to

3060-404: The licenses made by Creative Commons have allowed for the dissemination of works under a clear set of legal permissions. Not all Creative Commons licenses are entirely free; their permissions may range from very liberal general redistribution and modification of the work to a more restrictive redistribution-only licensing. Since February 2008, Creative Commons licenses which are entirely free carry

3128-507: The main one is that published by a government gazette . So, law-documents can eventually inherit license expressed by the repository or by the gazette that contains it. The concept of applying free software licenses to content was introduced by Michael Stutz, who in 1997 wrote the paper "Applying Copyleft to Non-Software Information" for the GNU Project . The term "open content" was coined by David A. Wiley in 1998 and evangelized via

3196-826: The majority of works are not free, although the percentage of works that are open access is growing. Open access refers to online research outputs that are free of all restrictions to access and free of many restrictions on use (e.g. certain copyright and license restrictions). Authors may see open access publishing as a way of expanding the audience that is able to access their work to allow for greater impact, or support it for ideological reasons. Open access publishers such as PLOS and BioMed Central provide capacity for review and publishing of free works; such publications are currently more common in science than humanities. Various funding institutions and governing research bodies have mandated that academics must produce their works to be open-access, in order to qualify for funding, such as

3264-468: The members can reply to it. In order to communicate in real time, many projects use an instant messaging method such as IRC . Web forums have recently become a common way for users to get help with problems they encounter when using an open-source product. Wikis have become common as a communication medium for developers and users. In OSS development the participants, who are mostly volunteers, are distributed amongst different geographic regions so there

3332-639: The number of consumers. In some cases, free software vendors may use peer-to-peer technology as a method of dissemination. Project hosting and code distribution is not a problem for most free projects as a number of providers offer these services free of charge. Free content principles have been translated into fields such as engineering, where designs and engineering knowledge can be readily shared and duplicated, in order to reduce overheads associated with project development. Open design principles can be applied in engineering and technological applications, with projects in mobile telephony , small-scale manufacture,

3400-442: The original author, to maintain the original license of the reused content) or restrictions (excluding commercial use, banning certain media) chosen by the author. There are a number of standardized licenses offering varied options that allow authors to choose the type of reuse of their work that they wish to authorize or forbid. There are a number of different definitions of free content in regular use. Legally, however, free content

3468-479: The project's main goal was to allow the Bluebook's system of citation to be widely available at no cost, and allow others to collaborate on it under an open-source model . The Indigo Book is an unofficial substitute to the official Bluebook and is not endorsed by the Harvard Law Review Association; in December 2015, the project faced legal threats over its original name, Baby Blue's , which lawyers representing

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3536-474: The project; instead they are based on early releases of the software product, as Robbins describes. Besides requirements, often volunteer staff is attracted to help develop the software product based on the early releases of the software. This networking effect is essential according to Abrahamsson et al.: “if the introduced prototype gathers enough attention, it will gradually start to attract more and more developers”. However, Abrahamsson et al. also point out that

3604-401: The public without violating copyright law. Unlike free content and content under open-source licenses , there is no clear threshold that a work must reach to qualify as 'open content'. The 5Rs are put forward on the Open Content Project website as a framework for assessing the extent to which content is open: This broader definition distinguishes open content from open-source software, since

3672-560: The same source with a common purpose. The most prominent example of a "distribution" is an operating system. There are many Linux distributions (such as Debian , Fedora Core , Mandriva , Slackware , Ubuntu etc.) which ship the Linux kernel along with many user-land components. There are other distributions, like ActivePerl , the Perl programming language for various operating systems, and Cygwin distributions of open-source programs for Microsoft Windows . Other open-source projects, like

3740-507: The same terms and that the original copyright notices be maintained. A symbol commonly associated with copyleft is a reversal of the copyright symbol , facing the other way; the opening of the C points left rather than right. Unlike the copyright symbol, the copyleft symbol does not have a codified meaning. Projects that provide free content exist in several areas of interest, such as software, academic literature, general literature, music, images, video, and engineering . Technology has reduced

3808-548: The same time. This is done by moving the file into the users’ directories and then merging the files when the users are done. CVS also enables one to easily retrieve a previous version of a file. During mid 2000s, The Subversion revision control system (SVN) was created to replace CVS. It is quickly gaining ground as an OSS project version control system. Many open-source projects are now using distributed revision control systems, which scale better than centralized repositories such as SVN and CVS. Popular examples are git , used by

3876-422: The social structures that result leading to decreased production costs. Given sufficient interest in a software component, by using peer-to-peer distribution methods, distribution costs may be reduced, easing the burden of infrastructure maintenance on developers. As distribution is simultaneously provided by consumers, these software distribution models are scalable; that is, the method is feasible regardless of

3944-435: The system of citation expressed in the Bluebook was in the public domain because its widely mandated use in the court system made it an edict of government , going on to state that "in this case, a copyright is being used to keep something private that we all have to use." Additionally, U.S. copyright law states that a " system " is ineligible for copyright protection. Research conducted by Malamud and Sprigman found that

4012-411: The system themselves. Open-source software development can be divided into several phases. The phases specified here are derived from Sharma et al . A diagram displaying the process-data structure of open-source software development is shown on the right. In this picture, the phases of open-source software development are displayed, along with the corresponding data elements. This diagram is made using

4080-481: The text of each law, so the license must be assumed as an implied license . Only a few countries have explicit licenses in their law-documents, as the UK's Open Government Licence (a CC BY compatible license). In the other countries, the implied license comes from its proper rules (general laws and rules about copyright in government works). The automatic protection provided by the Berne Convention does not apply to

4148-411: The texts of laws: Article 2.4 excludes the official texts from the automatic protection. It is also possible to "inherit" the license from context. The set of country's law-documents is made available through national repositories. Examples of law-document open repositories: LexML Brazil , Legislation.gov.uk , and N-Lex . In general, a law-document is offered in more than one (open) official version, but

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4216-629: The trademark concerns, the name of the guide was changed to The Indigo Book on March 31, 2016. Free content Free content , libre content , libre information , or free information is any kind of creative work, such as a work of art , a book, a software program , or any other creative content for which there are very minimal copyright and other legal limitations on usage, modification and distribution. These are works or expressions which can be freely studied, applied, copied and modified by anyone for any purpose including, in some cases, commercial purposes. Free content encompasses all works in

4284-462: The two styles of development, according to Bar and Fogel, are in general the handling (and creation) of bug reports and feature requests, and the constraints under which the programmers are working. In closed-source software development, the programmers are often spending a lot of time dealing with and creating bug reports, as well as handling feature requests. This time is spent on creating and prioritizing further development plans. This leads to part of

4352-694: The web. While the vast majority of content on Misplaced Pages is free content, some copyrighted material is hosted under fair-use criteria . Free and open-source software , which is often referred to as open source software and free software , is a maturing technology with companies using them to provide services and technology to both end-users and technical consumers. The ease of dissemination increases modularity, which allows for smaller groups to contribute to projects as well as simplifying collaboration. Some claim that open source development models offer similar peer-recognition and collaborative benefit incentive as in more classical fields such as scientific research, with

4420-445: The work of the author to those who either pay royalties to the author for usage of the author's content or limit their use to fair use. Secondly, it limits the use of content whose author cannot be found. Finally, it creates a perceived barrier between authors by limiting derivative works, such as mashups and collaborative content. Although open content has been described as a counterbalance to copyright , open content licenses rely on

4488-403: The work. The right to reuse such a work is granted by the authors in a license known as a free license , a free distribution license, or an open license, depending on the rights assigned. These freedoms given to users in the reuse of works (that is, the right to freely use, study, modify or distribute these works, possibly also for commercial purposes) are often associated with obligations (to cite

4556-406: The works then enter the public domain . Copyright laws are a balance between the rights of creators of intellectual and artistic works and the rights of others to build upon those works. During the time period of copyright the author's work may only be copied, modified, or publicly performed with the consent of the author, unless the use is a fair use . Traditional copyright control limits the use of

4624-614: Was launched, in which product information for e-commerce applications was created and published under the Open Content License. It was embraced by the tech sector, which was already quite open source minded. In 2006, a Creative Commons' successor project, the Definition of Free Cultural Works , was introduced for free content. It was put forth by Erik Möller , Richard Stallman , Lawrence Lessig , Benjamin Mako Hill , Angela Beesley, and others. The Definition of Free Cultural Works

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