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73-491: Internet of things ( IoT ) describes devices with sensors , processing ability, software and other technologies that connect and exchange data with other devices and systems over the Internet or other communication networks. The Internet of things encompasses electronics , communication , and computer science engineering. "Internet of things" has been considered a misnomer because devices do not need to be connected to

146-659: A QR code or NFC tag is affixed on a product or its packaging. The tag itself is passive, however, it contains a unique identifier (typically a URL ) which enables a user to access digital content about the product via a smartphone. Strictly speaking, such passive items are not part of the Internet of things, but they can be seen as enablers of digital interactions. The term "Internet of Packaging" has been coined to describe applications in which unique identifiers are used, to automate supply chains, and are scanned on large scale by consumers to access digital content. Authentication of

219-447: A certain distance, and where the metal gate is replaced by an ion -sensitive membrane , electrolyte solution and reference electrode . The ISFET is widely used in biomedical applications, such as the detection of DNA hybridization , biomarker detection from blood , antibody detection, glucose measurement, pH sensing, and genetic technology . By the mid-1980s, numerous other MOSFET sensors had been developed, including

292-723: A computer processor. Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons ( tactile sensor ) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base, and in innumerable applications of which most people are never aware. With advances in micromachinery and easy-to-use microcontroller platforms, the uses of sensors have expanded beyond the traditional fields of temperature, pressure and flow measurement, for example into MARG sensors . Analog sensors such as potentiometers and force-sensing resistors are still widely used. Their applications include manufacturing and machinery, airplanes and aerospace, cars, medicine, robotics and many other aspects of our day-to-day life. There

365-515: A deployment in the U.S. It subsequently announced it would set up a total of 4000 base stations to cover a total of 30 cities in the U.S. by the end of 2016, making it the largest IoT network coverage provider in the country thus far. Cisco also participates in smart cities projects. Cisco has deployed technologies for Smart Wi-Fi, Smart Safety & Security, Smart Lighting , Smart Parking, Smart Transports, Smart Bus Stops, Smart Kiosks, Remote Expert for Government Services (REGS) and Smart Education in

438-471: A digital signal, using an analog-to-digital converter . Since sensors cannot replicate an ideal transfer function , several types of deviations can occur which limit sensor accuracy : All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random errors . Systematic errors can sometimes be compensated for by means of some kind of calibration strategy. Noise is a random error that can be reduced by signal processing , such as filtering, usually at

511-455: A fundamental role in managing chronic diseases and in disease prevention and control. Remote monitoring is made possible through the connection of powerful wireless solutions. The connectivity enables health practitioners to capture patient's data and apply complex algorithms in health data analysis. The IoT can assist in the integration of communications, control, and information processing across various transportation systems . Application of

584-940: A higher quality of life. The term "Enterprise IoT" refers to devices used in business and corporate settings. The Internet of Medical Things ( IoMT ) is an application of the IoT for medical and health-related purposes, data collection and analysis for research, and monitoring. The IoMT has been referenced as "Smart Healthcare", as the technology for creating a digitized healthcare system, connecting available medical resources and healthcare services. IoT devices can be used to enable remote health monitoring and emergency notification systems . These health monitoring devices can range from blood pressure and heart rate monitors to advanced devices capable of monitoring specialized implants, such as pacemakers, Fitbit electronic wristbands, or advanced hearing aids. Some hospitals have begun implementing "smart beds" that can detect when they are occupied and when

657-417: A learning agent can sense the environment's state (e.g., sensing home temperature), perform actions (e.g., turn HVAC on or off) and learn through the maximizing accumulated rewards it receives in long term. Sensor In the broadest definition, a sensor is a device, module, machine, or subsystem that detects events or changes in its environment and sends the information to other electronics, frequently

730-540: A nationwide public network for low- bandwidth data transmissions using the same unlicensed 2.4 gigahertz spectrum as Wi-Fi. Ingenu's "Machine Network" covers more than a third of the US population across 35 major cities including San Diego and Dallas. French company, Sigfox , commenced building an Ultra Narrowband wireless data network in the San Francisco Bay Area in 2014, the first business to achieve such

803-885: A part of his "Six Webs" framework, presented at the World Economic Forum at Davos in 1999. The concept of the "Internet of things" and the term itself, first appeared in a speech by Peter T. Lewis, to the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation 15th Annual Legislative Weekend in Washington, D.C. , published in September 1985. According to Lewis, "The Internet of Things, or IoT, is the integration of people, processes and technology with connectable devices and sensors to enable remote monitoring, status, manipulation and evaluation of trends of such devices." The term "Internet of things"

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876-589: A part of the larger concept of home automation , which can include lighting, heating and air conditioning, media and security systems and camera systems. Long-term benefits could include energy savings by automatically ensuring lights and electronics are turned off or by making the residents in the home aware of usage. A smart home or automated home could be based on a platform or hubs that control smart devices and appliances. For instance, using Apple 's HomeKit , manufacturers can have their home products and accessories controlled by an application in iOS devices such as

949-502: A patient is attempting to get up. It can also adjust itself to ensure appropriate pressure and support are applied to the patient without the manual interaction of nurses. A 2015 Goldman Sachs report indicated that healthcare IoT devices "can save the United States more than $ 300 billion in annual healthcare expenditures by increasing revenue and decreasing cost." Moreover, the use of mobile devices to support medical follow-up led to

1022-597: A possibility with the IoT. End-to-end health monitoring IoT platforms are also available for antenatal and chronic patients, helping one manage health vitals and recurring medication requirements. Advances in plastic and fabric electronics fabrication methods have enabled ultra-low cost, use-and-throw IoMT sensors. These sensors, along with the required RFID electronics, can be fabricated on paper or e-textiles for wireless powered disposable sensing devices. Applications have been established for point-of-care medical diagnostics , where portability and low system-complexity

1095-480: A sharp distinction between a biosensor and a standard chemical sensor is superfluous. Typical biomimetic materials used in sensor development are molecularly imprinted polymers and aptamers . In biomedicine and biotechnology , sensors which detect analytes thanks to a biological component, such as cells, protein, nucleic acid or biomimetic polymers , are called biosensors . Whereas a non-biological sensor, even organic (carbon chemistry), for biological analytes

1168-420: A thermometer moves 1  cm when the temperature changes by 1 °C, its sensitivity is 1 cm/°C (it is basically the slope dy/dx assuming a linear characteristic). Some sensors can also affect what they measure; for instance, a room temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats the thermometer. Sensors are usually designed to have a small effect on what

1241-457: Is a DARPA -led program designed to establish an Internet of things across large ocean areas for the purposes of collecting, monitoring, and analyzing environmental and vessel activity data. The project entails the deployment of about 50,000 floats that house a passive sensor suite that autonomously detect and track military and commercial vessels as part of a cloud-based network. There are several applications of smart or active packaging in which

1314-724: Is a magazine edited by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers . The first issue of IEEE Spectrum was published in January 1964 as a successor to Electrical Engineering . In 2010, IEEE Spectrum was the recipient of Utne Reader magazine's Utne Independent Press Award for Science/Technology Coverage. In 2012, IEEE Spectrum was selected as the winner of the National Magazine Awards "General Excellence Among Thought Leader Magazines" category. This science and technology magazine–related article

1387-506: Is a project initiated and executed by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) that focuses on the basic science related to the IoT that enhance the capabilities of Army soldiers. In 2017, ARL launched the Internet of Battlefield Things Collaborative Research Alliance (IoBT-CRA) , establishing a working collaboration between industry, university, and Army researchers to advance the theoretical foundations of IoT technologies and their applications to Army operations. The Ocean of Things project

1460-438: Is a self-contained analytical device that can provide information about the chemical composition of its environment, that is, a liquid or a gas phase . The information is provided in the form of a measurable physical signal that is correlated with the concentration of a certain chemical species (termed as analyte ). Two main steps are involved in the functioning of a chemical sensor, namely, recognition and transduction . In

1533-403: Is a wide range of other sensors that measure chemical and physical properties of materials, including optical sensors for refractive index measurement, vibrational sensors for fluid viscosity measurement, and electro-chemical sensors for monitoring pH of fluids. A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much its output changes when the input quantity it measures changes. For instance, if the mercury in

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1606-573: Is also used for processes in the industrialization of construction. There are numerous IoT applications in farming such as collecting data on temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed, pest infestation, and soil content. This data can be used to automate farming techniques, take informed decisions to improve quality and quantity, minimize risk and waste, and reduce the effort required to manage crops. For example, farmers can now monitor soil temperature and moisture from afar and even apply IoT-acquired data to precision fertilization programs. The overall goal

1679-493: Is also used in healthcare systems . There are a number of concerns about the risks in the growth of IoT technologies and products, especially in the areas of privacy and security , and consequently there have been industry and government moves to address these concerns, including the development of international and local standards, guidelines, and regulatory frameworks. Because of their interconnected nature, IoT devices are vulnerable to security breaches and privacy concerns. At

1752-829: Is connected to 10,000 sensors that enable services like parking search, and environmental monitoring. City context information is used in this deployment so as to benefit merchants through a spark deals mechanism based on city behavior that aims at maximizing the impact of each notification. Other examples of large-scale deployments underway include the Sino-Singapore Guangzhou Knowledge City; work on improving air and water quality, reducing noise pollution, and increasing transportation efficiency in San Jose, California; and smart traffic management in western Singapore. Using its RPMA (Random Phase Multiple Access) technology, San Diego–based Ingenu has built

1825-406: Is essential. As of 2018 IoMT was not only being applied in the clinical laboratory industry, but also in the healthcare and health insurance industries. IoMT in the healthcare industry is now permitting doctors, patients, and others, such as guardians of patients, nurses, families, and similar, to be part of a system, where patient records are saved in a database, allowing doctors and the rest of

1898-497: Is gradually being built, with approximately 70 percent of the business district completed as of June 2018. Much of the city is planned to be wired and automated, with little or no human intervention. In 2014 another application was undergoing a project in Santander , Spain. For this deployment, two approaches have been adopted. This city of 180,000 inhabitants has already seen 18,000 downloads of its city smartphone app. The app

1971-453: Is likely to improve incident management and emergency response coordination, and quality of service , up-times and reduce costs of operation in all infrastructure-related areas. Even areas such as waste management can benefit. There are several planned or ongoing large-scale deployments of the IoT, to enable better management of cities and systems. For example, Songdo , South Korea, the first of its kind fully equipped and wired smart city ,

2044-739: Is measured; making the sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other advantages. Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a microscopic scale as microsensors using MEMS technology. In most cases, a microsensor reaches a significantly faster measurement time and higher sensitivity compared with macroscopic approaches. Due to the increasing demand for rapid, affordable and reliable information in today's world, disposable sensors—low-cost and easy‐to‐use devices for short‐term monitoring or single‐shot measurements—have recently gained growing importance. Using this class of sensors, critical analytical information can be obtained by anyone, anywhere and at any time, without

2117-403: Is referred to as sensor or nanosensor . This terminology applies for both in-vitro and in vivo applications. The encapsulation of the biological component in biosensors, presents a slightly different problem that ordinary sensors; this can either be done by means of a semipermeable barrier , such as a dialysis membrane or a hydrogel , or a 3D polymer matrix, which either physically constrains

2190-485: Is that data from sensors, coupled with the farmer's knowledge and intuition about his or her farm, can help increase farm productivity, and also help reduce costs. In August 2018, Toyota Tsusho began a partnership with Microsoft to create fish farming tools using the Microsoft Azure application suite for IoT technologies related to water management. Developed in part by researchers from Kindai University ,

2263-432: Is the application of IoT technologies in the military domain for the purposes of reconnaissance, surveillance, and other combat-related objectives. It is heavily influenced by the future prospects of warfare in an urban environment and involves the use of sensors, munitions , vehicles, robots, human-wearable biometrics, and other smart technology that is relevant on the battlefield. One of the examples of IOT devices used in

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2336-570: Is the basis for modern image sensors , including the charge-coupled device (CCD) and the CMOS active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor), used in digital imaging and digital cameras . Willard Boyle and George E. Smith developed the CCD in 1969. While researching the MOS process, they realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny MOS capacitor. As it

2409-672: Is the first step to autonomous driving and connected road infrastructure. IoT devices can be used to monitor and control the mechanical, electrical and electronic systems used in various types of buildings (e.g., public and private, industrial, institutions, or residential) in home automation and building automation systems. In this context, three main areas are being covered in literature: Also known as IIoT, industrial IoT devices acquire and analyze data from connected equipment, operational technology (OT), locations, and people. Combined with operational technology (OT) monitoring devices, IIoT helps regulate and monitor industrial systems. Also,

2482-854: The Amazon Echo , Google Home , Apple's HomePod , and Samsung's SmartThings Hub . In addition to the commercial systems, there are many non-proprietary, open source ecosystems, including Home Assistant, OpenHAB and Domoticz. One key application of a smart home is to assist the elderly and disabled . These home systems use assistive technology to accommodate an owner's specific disabilities. Voice control can assist users with sight and mobility limitations while alert systems can be connected directly to cochlear implants worn by hearing-impaired users. They can also be equipped with additional safety features, including sensors that monitor for medical emergencies such as falls or seizures . Smart home technology applied in this way can provide users with more freedom and

2555-534: The gas sensor FET (GASFET), surface accessible FET (SAFET), charge flow transistor (CFT), pressure sensor FET (PRESSFET), chemical field-effect transistor (ChemFET), reference ISFET (REFET), biosensor FET (BioFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET). By the early 2000s, BioFET types such as the DNA field-effect transistor (DNAFET), gene-modified FET (GenFET) and cell-potential BioFET (CPFET) had been developed. MOS technology

2628-505: The iPhone and the Apple Watch . This could be a dedicated app or iOS native applications such as Siri . This can be demonstrated in the case of Lenovo's Smart Home Essentials, which is a line of smart home devices that are controlled through Apple's Home app or Siri without the need for a Wi-Fi bridge. There are also dedicated smart home hubs that are offered as standalone platforms to connect different smart home products. These include

2701-515: The movements of wildlife and their habitats . Development of resource-constrained devices connected to the Internet also means that other applications like earthquake or tsunami early-warning systems can also be used by emergency services to provide more effective aid. IoT devices in this application typically span a large geographic area and can also be mobile. It has been argued that the standardization that IoT brings to wireless sensing will revolutionize this area. Another example of integrating

2774-776: The CMU campus, it became the first ARPANET -connected appliance, Mark Weiser 's 1991 paper on ubiquitous computing , "The Computer of the 21st Century", as well as academic venues such as UbiComp and PerCom produced the contemporary vision of the IoT. In 1994, Reza Raji described the concept in IEEE Spectrum as "[moving] small packets of data to a large set of nodes, so as to integrate and automate everything from home appliances to entire factories". Between 1993 and 1997, several companies proposed solutions like Microsoft 's at Work or Novell 's NEST . The field gained momentum when Bill Joy envisioned device-to-device communication as

2847-649: The Hudson River, East River, and Upper New York Bay. With the wireless network in place, NY Waterway is able to take control of its fleet and passengers in a way that was not previously possible. New applications can include security, energy and fleet management, digital signage, public Wi-Fi, paperless ticketing and others. Significant numbers of energy-consuming devices (e.g. lamps, household appliances, motors, pumps, etc.) already integrate Internet connectivity, which can allow them to communicate with utilities not only to balance power generation but also helps optimize

2920-406: The Internet of things. In the consumer market, IoT technology is most synonymous with " smart home " products, including devices and appliances ( lighting fixtures , thermostats , home security systems , cameras , and other home appliances) that support one or more common ecosystems and can be controlled via devices associated with that ecosystem, such as smartphones and smart speakers . IoT

2993-658: The IoT extends to all aspects of transportation systems (i.e., the vehicle, the infrastructure, and the driver or user). Dynamic interaction between these components of a transport system enables inter- and intra-vehicular communication, smart traffic control , smart parking, electronic toll collection systems , logistics and fleet management , vehicle control , safety, and road assistance. In vehicular communication systems , vehicle-to-everything communication (V2X), consists of three main components: vehicle-to-vehicle communication (V2V), vehicle-to-infrastructure communication (V2I) and vehicle to pedestrian communications (V2P). V2X

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3066-576: The IoT is Living Lab which integrates and combines research and innovation processes, establishing within a public-private-people-partnership. Between 2006 and January 2024, there were over 440 Living Labs (though not all are currently active) that use the IoT to collaborate and share knowledge between stakeholders to co-create innovative and technological products. For companies to implement and develop IoT services for smart cities, they need to have incentives. The governments play key roles in smart city projects as changes in policies will help cities to implement

3139-491: The IoT which provides effectiveness, efficiency, and accuracy of the resources that are being used. For instance, the government provides tax incentives and cheap rent, improves public transports, and offers an environment where start-up companies, creative industries, and multinationals may co-create, share a common infrastructure and labor markets, and take advantage of locally embedded technologies, production process, and transaction costs. The Internet of Military Things (IoMT)

3212-496: The concepts of the IoT and autonomous control, with initial outcomes towards this direction considering objects as the driving force for autonomous IoT. An approach in this context is deep reinforcement learning where most of IoT systems provide a dynamic and interactive environment. Training an agent (i.e., IoT device) to behave smartly in such an environment cannot be addressed by conventional machine learning algorithms such as supervised learning . By reinforcement learning approach,

3285-639: The construction industry by cost-saving, time reduction, better quality workday, paperless workflow and increase in productivity. It can help in taking faster decisions and saving money in Real-Time Data Analytics . It can also be used for scheduling repair and maintenance activities efficiently, by coordinating tasks between different service providers and users of these facilities. IoT devices can also be used to control critical infrastructure like bridges to provide access to ships. The usage of IoT devices for monitoring and operating infrastructure

3358-670: The creation of 'm-health', used analyzed health statistics." Specialized sensors can also be equipped within living spaces to monitor the health and general well-being of senior citizens, while also ensuring that proper treatment is being administered and assisting people to regain lost mobility via therapy as well. These sensors create a network of intelligent sensors that are able to collect, process, transfer, and analyze valuable information in different environments, such as connecting in-home monitoring devices to hospital-based systems. Other consumer devices to encourage healthy living, such as connected scales or wearable heart monitors , are also

3431-496: The efficiency of the production and distribution of electricity. Using advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) Internet-connected devices, electric utilities not only collect data from end-users, but also manage distribution automation devices like transformers. Environmental monitoring applications of the IoT typically use sensors to assist in environmental protection by monitoring air or water quality , atmospheric or soil conditions , and can even include areas like monitoring

3504-406: The energy consumption as a whole. These devices allow for remote control by users, or central management via a cloud -based interface, and enable functions like scheduling (e.g., remotely powering on or off heating systems, controlling ovens, changing lighting conditions etc.). The smart grid is a utility-side IoT application; systems gather and act on energy and power-related information to improve

3577-481: The engine rooms, bilge, and batteries to be constantly monitored and reported to connected Android & Apple applications for example. Monitoring and controlling operations of sustainable urban and rural infrastructures like bridges, railway tracks and on- and offshore wind farms is a key application of the IoT. The IoT infrastructure can be used for monitoring any events or changes in structural conditions that can compromise safety and increase risk. The IoT can benefit

3650-499: The expense of the dynamic behavior of the sensor. The sensor resolution or measurement resolution is the smallest change that can be detected in the quantity that is being measured. The resolution of a sensor with a digital output is usually the numerical resolution of the digital output. The resolution is related to the precision with which the measurement is made, but they are not the same thing. A sensor's accuracy may be considerably worse than its resolution. A chemical sensor

3723-422: The extent that they will far exceed the number of networked computers and workstations." Peterson believed that medical devices and industrial controls would become dominant applications of the technology. Defining the Internet of things as "simply the point in time when more 'things or objects' were connected to the Internet than people", Cisco Systems estimated that the IoT was "born" between 2008 and 2009, with

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3796-482: The five km area in the city of Vijaywada, India. Another example of a large deployment is the one completed by New York Waterways in New York City to connect all the city's vessels and be able to monitor them live 24/7. The network was designed and engineered by Fluidmesh Networks , a Chicago-based company developing wireless networks for critical applications. The NYWW network is currently providing coverage on

3869-406: The medical staff to have access to patient information. IoMT in the insurance industry provides access to better and new types of dynamic information. This includes sensor-based solutions such as biosensors, wearables, connected health devices, and mobile apps to track customer behavior. This can lead to more accurate underwriting and new pricing models. The application of the IoT in healthcare plays

3942-424: The military is Xaver 1000 system. The Xaver 1000 was developed by Israel's Camero Tech, which is the latest in the company's line of "through wall imaging systems". The Xaver line uses millimeter wave (MMW) radar, or radar in the range of 30-300 gigahertz. It is equipped with an AI-based life target tracking system as well as its own 3D 'sense-through-the-wall' technology. The Internet of Battlefield Things ( IoBT )

4015-409: The need for recalibration and worrying about contamination. A good sensor obeys the following rules: Most sensors have a linear transfer function . The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio between the output signal and measured property. For example, if a sensor measures temperature and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is constant with the units [V/K]. The sensitivity is the slope of

4088-406: The open-gate field-effect transistor (OGFET) introduced by Johannessen in 1970, the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET) invented by Piet Bergveld in 1970, the adsorption FET (ADFET) patented by P.F. Cox in 1974, and a hydrogen -sensitive MOSFET demonstrated by I. Lundstrom, M.S. Shivaraman, C.S. Svenson and L. Lundkvist in 1975. The ISFET is a special type of MOSFET with a gate at

4161-486: The public internet ; they only need to be connected to a network and be individually addressable. The field has evolved due to the convergence of multiple technologies , including ubiquitous computing , commodity sensors , and increasingly powerful embedded systems , as well as machine learning . Older fields of embedded systems , wireless sensor networks , control systems, automation (including home and building automation ), independently and collectively enable

4234-499: The purview of the IIoT . IoT can also be applied to asset management via predictive maintenance , statistical evaluation , and measurements to maximize reliability. Industrial management systems can be integrated with smart grids , enabling energy optimization. Measurements, automated controls, plant optimization, health and safety management, and other functions are provided by networked sensors. In addition to general manufacturing, IoT

4307-521: The recognition step, analyte molecules interact selectively with receptor molecules or sites included in the structure of the recognition element of the sensor. Consequently, a characteristic physical parameter varies and this variation is reported by means of an integrated transducer that generates the output signal. A chemical sensor based on recognition material of biological nature is a biosensor . However, as synthetic biomimetic materials are going to substitute to some extent recognition biomaterials,

4380-420: The same firm projected there would be 30 billion devices connected by 2025. As of October, 2024, there are around 17 billion. Ambient intelligence and autonomous control are not part of the original concept of the Internet of things. Ambient intelligence and autonomous control do not necessarily require Internet structures, either. However, there is a shift in research (by companies such as Intel ) to integrate

4453-919: The same implementation can be carried out for automated record updates of asset placement in industrial storage units as the size of the assets can vary from a small screw to the whole motor spare part, and misplacement of such assets can cause a loss of manpower time and money. The IoT can connect various manufacturing devices equipped with sensing, identification, processing, communication, actuation, and networking capabilities. Network control and management of manufacturing equipment , asset and situation management, or manufacturing process control allow IoT to be used for industrial applications and smart manufacturing. IoT intelligent systems enable rapid manufacturing and optimization of new products and rapid response to product demands. Digital control systems to automate process controls, operator tools and service information systems to optimize plant safety and security are within

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4526-486: The same time, the way these devices communicate wirelessly creates regulatory ambiguities, complicating jurisdictional boundaries of the data transfer. Around 1972, for its remote site use, Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory developed a computer controlled vending machine, adapted from a machine rented from Canteen Vending , which sold for cash or, though a computer terminal ( Teletype Model 33 KSR ), on credit. Products included, at least, beer, yogurt, and milk. It

4599-665: The sensing macromolecule or chemically constrains the macromolecule by bounding it to the scaffold. Neuromorphic sensors are sensors that physically mimic structures and functions of biological neural entities. One example of this is the event camera . The MOSFET invented at Bell Labs between 1955 and 1960, MOSFET sensors (MOS sensors) were later developed, and they have since been widely used to measure physical , chemical , biological and environmental parameters. A number of MOSFET sensors have been developed, for measuring physical , chemical , biological , and environmental parameters. The earliest MOSFET sensors include

4672-401: The specifics can be very different from one device to the next but there are basic characteristics shared by most. The IoT creates opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into computer-based systems, resulting in efficiency improvements, economic benefits, and reduced human exertions. IoT Analytics reported there were 16.6 billion IoT devices connected in 2023. In 2020,

4745-425: The things/people ratio growing from 0.08 in 2003 to 1.84 in 2010. The extensive set of applications for IoT devices is often divided into consumer, commercial, industrial, and infrastructure spaces. A growing portion of IoT devices is created for consumer use, including connected vehicles, home automation , wearable technology , connected health, and appliances with remote monitoring capabilities. IoT devices are

4818-459: The transfer function. Converting the sensor's electrical output (for example V) to the measured units (for example K) requires dividing the electrical output by the slope (or multiplying by its reciprocal). In addition, an offset is frequently added or subtracted. For example, −40 must be added to the output if 0 V output corresponds to −40 C input. For an analog sensor signal to be processed or used in digital equipment, it needs to be converted to

4891-399: The unique identifiers, and thereby of the product itself, is possible via a copy-sensitive digital watermark or copy detection pattern for scanning when scanning a QR code, while NFC tags can encrypt communication. The IoT's major significant trend in recent years is the growth of devices connected and controlled via the Internet. The wide range of applications for IoT technology mean that

4964-801: The water pump mechanisms use artificial intelligence to count the number of fish on a conveyor belt , analyze the number of fish, and deduce the effectiveness of water flow from the data the fish provide. The FarmBeats project from Microsoft Research that uses TV white space to connect farms is also a part of the Azure Marketplace now. IoT devices are in use to monitor the environments and systems of boats and yachts. Many pleasure boats are left unattended for days in summer, and months in winter so such devices provide valuable early alerts of boat flooding, fire, and deep discharge of batteries. The use of global internet data networks such as Sigfox , combined with long-life batteries, and microelectronics allows

5037-596: Was built as an internet interface for sensors installed in the Carnegie Mellon University Computer Science Department' s departmental Coca-Cola vending machine , supplied by graduate student volunteers, provided a temperature model and an inventory status, inspired by the computer controlled vending machine in the Prancing Pony room at Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory . First accessible only on

5110-667: Was called the Prancing Pony , after the name of the room, named after an inn in Tolkien's Lord of the Rings , as each room at Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory was named after a place in Middle Earth . A successor version still operates in the Computer Science Department at Stanford, with both hardware and software having been updated. In 1982, an early concept of a network connected smart device

5183-834: Was coined independently by Kevin Ashton of Procter & Gamble , later of MIT 's Auto-ID Center , in 1999, though he prefers the phrase "Internet for things". At that point, he viewed radio-frequency identification (RFID) as essential to the Internet of things, which would allow computers to manage all individual things. The main theme of the Internet of things is to embed short-range mobile transceivers in various gadgets and daily necessities to enable new forms of communication between people and things, and between things themselves. In 2004 Cornelius "Pete" Peterson, CEO of NetSilicon, predicted that, "The next era of information technology will be dominated by [IoT] devices, and networked devices will ultimately gain in popularity and significance to

5256-431: Was fairly straightforward to fabricate a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next. The CCD is a semiconductor circuit that was later used in the first digital video cameras for television broadcasting . The MOS active-pixel sensor (APS) was developed by Tsutomu Nakamura at Olympus in 1985. The CMOS active-pixel sensor

5329-1110: Was later developed by Eric Fossum and his team in the early 1990s. MOS image sensors are widely used in optical mouse technology. The first optical mouse, invented by Richard F. Lyon at Xerox in 1980, used a 5   μm NMOS sensor chip. Since the first commercial optical mouse, the IntelliMouse introduced in 1999, most optical mouse devices use CMOS sensors. MOS monitoring sensors are used for house monitoring , office and agriculture monitoring, traffic monitoring (including car speed , traffic jams , and traffic accidents ), weather monitoring (such as for rain , wind , lightning and storms ), defense monitoring, and monitoring temperature , humidity , air pollution , fire , health , security and lighting . MOS gas detector sensors are used to detect carbon monoxide , sulfur dioxide , hydrogen sulfide , ammonia , and other gas substances. Other MOS sensors include intelligent sensors and wireless sensor network (WSN) technology. IEEE Spectrum IEEE Spectrum

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