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55-643: The Ibestad Tunnel is an undersea tunnel in Ibestad Municipality in Troms county, Norway . The tunnel connects the islands of Rolla and Andørja . The western end of the tunnel begins in the village of Hamnvik on Rolla. Then the tunnel goes under the Bygda strait and connects to the village of Sørvika on the island of Andørja. The 3,398-metre (2.1 mi) long tunnel reaches a maximum depth of 112 metres (367 ft) below sea level. The width of

110-429: A submerged floating tunnel . The immersed tube method involves steel tube segments that are positioned in a trench in the sea floor and joined together. The trench is then covered and the water pumped from the tunnel. Submerged floating tunnels use the law of buoyancy to remain submerged, with the tunnel attached to the sea bed by columns or tethers, or hung from pontoons on the surface. One such advantage would be that

165-413: A balancing circuit until the battery is balanced. Balancing typically occurs whenever one or more cells reach their top-of-charge voltage before the other(s), as it is generally inaccurate to do so at other stages of the charge cycle. This is most commonly done by passive balancing, which dissipates excess charge as heat via resistors connected momentarily across the cells to be balanced. Active balancing

220-420: A conventional lithium-ion cell is graphite made from carbon . The positive electrode is typically a metal oxide or phosphate. The electrolyte is a lithium salt in an organic solvent . The negative electrode (which is the anode when the cell is discharging) and the positive electrode (which is the cathode when discharging) are prevented from shorting by a separator. The electrodes are connected to

275-417: A gelled material, requiring fewer binding agents. This in turn shortens the manufacturing cycle. One potential application is in battery-powered airplanes. Another new development of lithium-ion batteries are flow batteries with redox-targeted solids, that use no binders or electron-conducting additives, and allow for completely independent scaling of energy and power. Generally, the negative electrode of

330-400: A higher discharge rate. NMC and its derivatives are widely used in the electrification of transport , one of the main technologies (combined with renewable energy ) for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from vehicles . M. Stanley Whittingham conceived intercalation electrodes in the 1970s and created the first rechargeable lithium-ion battery, based on a titanium disulfide cathode and

385-404: A liquid solvent (such as propylene carbonate or diethyl carbonate ) is added. The electrolyte salt is almost always lithium hexafluorophosphate ( LiPF 6 ), which combines good ionic conductivity with chemical and electrochemical stability. The hexafluorophosphate anion is essential for passivating the aluminium current collector used for the positive electrode. A titanium tab

440-506: A lithium-aluminium anode, although it suffered from safety problems and was never commercialized. John Goodenough expanded on this work in 1980 by using lithium cobalt oxide as a cathode. The first prototype of the modern Li-ion battery, which uses a carbonaceous anode rather than lithium metal, was developed by Akira Yoshino in 1985 and commercialized by a Sony and Asahi Kasei team led by Yoshio Nishi in 1991. M. Stanley Whittingham , John Goodenough , and Akira Yoshino were awarded

495-524: A lithium-ion cell can change dramatically. Current effort has been exploring the use of novel architectures using nanotechnology to improve performance. Areas of interest include nano-scale electrode materials and alternative electrode structures. The reactants in the electrochemical reactions in a lithium-ion cell are the materials of the electrodes, both of which are compounds containing lithium atoms. Although many thousands of different materials have been investigated for use in lithium-ion batteries, only

550-462: A longer cycle life , and a longer calendar life . Also noteworthy is a dramatic improvement in lithium-ion battery properties after their market introduction in 1991: over the following 30 years, their volumetric energy density increased threefold while their cost dropped tenfold. There are at least 12 different chemistries of Li-ion batteries; see " List of battery types ." The invention and commercialization of Li-ion batteries may have had one of

605-424: A non-aqueous electrolyte is typically used, and a sealed container rigidly excludes moisture from the battery pack. The non-aqueous electrolyte is typically a mixture of organic carbonates such as ethylene carbonate and propylene carbonate containing complexes of lithium ions. Ethylene carbonate is essential for making solid electrolyte interphase on the carbon anode, but since it is solid at room temperature,

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660-449: A polymer gel as an electrolyte), a lithium cobalt oxide ( LiCoO 2 ) cathode material, and a graphite anode, which together offer high energy density. Lithium iron phosphate ( LiFePO 4 ), lithium manganese oxide ( LiMn 2 O 4 spinel , or Li 2 MnO 3 -based lithium-rich layered materials, LMR-NMC), and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide ( LiNiMnCoO 2 or NMC) may offer longer life and

715-446: A process called insertion ( intercalation ) or extraction ( deintercalation ), respectively. As the lithium ions "rock" back and forth between the two electrodes, these batteries are also known as "rocking-chair batteries" or "swing batteries" (a term given by some European industries). The following equations exemplify the chemistry (left to right: discharging, right to left: charging). The negative electrode half-reaction for

770-529: A range of alternative materials, replaced TiS 2 with lithium cobalt oxide ( LiCoO 2 , or LCO), which has a similar layered structure but offers a higher voltage and is much more stable in air. This material would later be used in the first commercial Li-ion battery, although it did not, on its own, resolve the persistent issue of flammability. These early attempts to develop rechargeable Li-ion batteries used lithium metal anodes, which were ultimately abandoned due to safety concerns, as lithium metal

825-430: A solid organic electrolyte, polyethylene oxide , which was more stable. In 1985, Akira Yoshino at Asahi Kasei Corporation discovered that petroleum coke , a less graphitized form of carbon, can reversibly intercalate Li-ions at a low potential of ~0.5 V relative to Li+ /Li without structural degradation. Its structural stability originates from its amorphous carbon regions, which serving as covalent joints to pin

880-541: A temperature range of 5 to 45 °C (41 to 113 °F). Charging should be performed within this temperature range. At temperatures from 0 to 5 °C charging is possible, but the charge current should be reduced. During a low-temperature (under 0 °C) charge, the slight temperature rise above ambient due to the internal cell resistance is beneficial. High temperatures during charging may lead to battery degradation and charging at temperatures above 45 °C will degrade battery performance, whereas at lower temperatures

935-523: A theoretical capacity of 1339 coulombs per gram (372 mAh/g). The positive electrode is generally one of three materials: a layered oxide (such as lithium cobalt oxide ), a polyanion (such as lithium iron phosphate ) or a spinel (such as lithium manganese oxide ). More experimental materials include graphene -containing electrodes, although these remain far from commercially viable due to their high cost. Lithium reacts vigorously with water to form lithium hydroxide (LiOH) and hydrogen gas. Thus,

990-494: A tunnel would still allow shipping to pass. A low bridge would need an opening or swing bridge to allow shipping to pass, which can cause traffic congestion . Conversely, a higher bridge that does allow shipping may be unsightly and opposed by the public. Higher bridges can also be more expensive than lower ones. Bridges can also be closed due to harsh weather such as high winds. Tunneling makes excavated soil available that can be used to create new land (see land reclamation ). This

1045-515: A very small number are commercially usable. All commercial Li-ion cells use intercalation compounds as active materials. The negative electrode is usually graphite , although silicon is often mixed in to increase the capacity. The electrolyte is usually lithium hexafluorophosphate , dissolved in a mixture of organic carbonates . A number of different materials are used for the positive electrode, such as LiCoO 2 , LiFePO 4 , and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides . During cell discharge

1100-440: Is a CuF 2 /Li battery developed by NASA in 1965. The breakthrough that produced the earliest form of the modern Li-ion battery was made by British chemist M. Stanley Whittingham in 1974, who first used titanium disulfide ( TiS 2 ) as a cathode material, which has a layered structure that can take in lithium ions without significant changes to its crystal structure . Exxon tried to commercialize this battery in

1155-417: Is a bit more than the heat of combustion of gasoline but does not consider the other materials that go into a lithium battery and that make lithium batteries many times heavier per unit of energy. Note that the cell voltages involved in these reactions are larger than the potential at which an aqueous solutions would electrolyze . During discharge, lithium ions ( Li ) carry the current within

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1210-561: Is a problem, causing seasonal disruption or requiring expensive ice-breaking ships. In the Øresund region the construction of the bridge-tunnel has been cited as enhancing regional integration and giving an economic boom not possible with the previous ferry links. Similar arguments are used by proponents of the Helsinki-Tallinn tunnel in the Talsinki region. There are various issues with the safety of both tunnels and ferries, in

1265-413: Is less common, more expensive, but more efficient, returning excess energy to other cells (or the entire pack) via a DC-DC converter or other circuitry. Balancing most often occurs during the constant voltage stage of charging, switching between charge modes until complete. The pack is usually fully charged only when balancing is complete, as even a single cell group lower in charge than the rest will limit

1320-462: Is recommended to be initiated when voltage goes below 4.05 V/cell. Failure to follow current and voltage limitations can result in an explosion. Charging temperature limits for Li-ion are stricter than the operating limits. Lithium-ion chemistry performs well at elevated temperatures but prolonged exposure to heat reduces battery life. Li‑ion batteries offer good charging performance at cooler temperatures and may even allow "fast-charging" within

1375-410: Is ultrasonically welded to the aluminium current collector. Other salts like lithium perchlorate ( LiClO 4 ), lithium tetrafluoroborate ( LiBF 4 ), and lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ( LiC 2 F 6 NO 4 S 2 ) are frequently used in research in tab-less coin cells , but are not usable in larger format cells, often because they are not compatible with

1430-537: Is unstable and prone to dendrite formation, which can cause short-circuiting . The eventual solution was to use an intercalation anode, similar to that used for the cathode, which prevents the formation of lithium metal during battery charging. The first to demonstrate lithium ion reversible intercalation into graphite anodes was Jürgen Otto Besenhard in 1974. Besenhard used organic solvents such as carbonates, however these solvents decomposed rapidly providing short battery cycle life. Later, in 1980, Rachid Yazami used

1485-591: The Channel Tunnel (75–90 minutes for Ferry and 21 minutes on the Eurostar ). Ferries offer much lower frequency and capacity and travel times tend to be longer with a ferry than a tunnel. Ferries also usually use fossil fuels emitting greenhouse gases in the process while most railway tunnels are electrified . In the Baltic Sea , one of the busiest areas for passenger ferries in the world, sea ice

1540-401: The constant current phase, the charger applies a constant current to the battery at a steadily increasing voltage, until the top-of-charge voltage limit per cell is reached. During the balance phase, the charger/battery reduces the charging current (or cycles the charging on and off to reduce the average current) while the state of charge of individual cells is brought to the same level by

1595-440: The Øresund Bridge have been constructed. As with bridges, ferry links are far cheaper to construct than tunnels, but not to operate. Also tunnels don't have the flexibility to be deployed over different routes as transport demand changes over time. Without the cost of a new ferry, the route over which a ferry provides transport can easily be changed. However, this flexibility can be a downside for customers who have come to rely on

1650-733: The 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for the development of lithium-ion batteries". Jeff Dahn received the ECS Battery Division Technology Award (2011) and the Yeager award from the International Battery Materials Association (2016). In April 2023, CATL announced that it would begin scaled-up production of its semi-solid condensed matter battery that produces a then record 500 Wh/kg . They use electrodes made from

1705-476: The 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their contributions to the development of lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-ion batteries can be a safety hazard if not properly engineered and manufactured because they have flammable electrolytes that, if damaged or incorrectly charged, can lead to explosions and fires. Much progress has been made in the development and manufacturing of safe lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-ion solid-state batteries are being developed to eliminate

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1760-434: The aluminium current collector. Copper (with a spot-welded nickel tab) is used as the current collector at the negative electrode. Current collector design and surface treatments may take various forms: foil, mesh, foam (dealloyed), etched (wholly or selectively), and coated (with various materials) to improve electrical characteristics. Depending on materials choices, the voltage , energy density , life, and safety of

1815-416: The area of non-flammable electrolytes as a pathway to increased safety based on the flammability and volatility of the organic solvents used in the typical electrolyte. Strategies include aqueous lithium-ion batteries , ceramic solid electrolytes, polymer electrolytes, ionic liquids, and heavily fluorinated systems. Research on rechargeable Li-ion batteries dates to the 1960s; one of the earliest examples

1870-399: The battery cell from the negative to the positive electrode, through the non- aqueous electrolyte and separator diaphragm. During charging, an external electrical power source applies an over-voltage (a voltage greater than the cell's own voltage) to the cell, forcing electrons to flow from the positive to the negative electrode. The lithium ions also migrate (through the electrolyte) from

1925-741: The case of tunnels, fire is a particular hazard with several fires having broken out in the Channel Tunnel. On the other hand, the free surface effect is a significant safety risk for RORO ferries as seen in the sinking of MS Estonia . Tunnels which exclude dangerous, combustible freights and the fuel or lithium-ion batteries carried aboard motorcars can significantly reduce fire risk. Tunnels require far higher costs of security and construction than bridges. This may mean that over short distances bridges may be preferred rather than tunnels (for example Dartford Crossing ). As stated earlier, bridges may not allow shipping to pass, so solutions such as

1980-511: The entire battery's usable capacity to that of its own. Balancing can last hours or even days, depending on the magnitude of the imbalance in the battery. During the constant voltage phase, the charger applies a voltage equal to the maximum cell voltage times the number of cells in series to the battery, as the current gradually declines towards 0, until the current is below a set threshold of about 3% of initial constant charge current. Periodic topping charge about once per 500 hours. Top charging

2035-419: The external circuit toward the cathode where they recombine with the cathode material in a reduction half-reaction. The electrolyte provides a conductive medium for lithium ions but does not partake in the electrochemical reaction. The reactions during discharge lower the chemical potential of the cell, so discharging transfers energy from the cell to wherever the electric current dissipates its energy, mostly in

2090-481: The external circuit. During charging these reactions and transports go in the opposite direction: electrons move from the positive electrode to the negative electrode through the external circuit. To charge the cell the external circuit has to provide electrical energy. This energy is then stored as chemical energy in the cell (with some loss, e. g., due to coulombic efficiency lower than 1). Both electrodes allow lithium ions to move in and out of their structures with

2145-555: The ferry service only to see it abandoned. Fixed infrastructure such as bridges or tunnels represent a much more concrete commitment to sustained service. Lithium-ion batteries A lithium-ion or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery that uses the reversible intercalation of Li ions into electronically conducting solids to store energy. In comparison with other commercial rechargeable batteries , Li-ion batteries are characterized by higher specific energy , higher energy density , higher energy efficiency ,

2200-864: The flammable electrolyte. Improperly recycled batteries can create toxic waste, especially from toxic metals, and are at risk of fire. Moreover, both lithium and other key strategic minerals used in batteries have significant issues at extraction, with lithium being water intensive in often arid regions and other minerals used in some Li-ion chemistries potentially being conflict minerals such as cobalt . Both environmental issues have encouraged some researchers to improve mineral efficiency and find alternatives such as Lithium iron phosphate lithium-ion chemistries or non-lithium-based battery chemistries like iron-air batteries . Research areas for lithium-ion batteries include extending lifetime, increasing energy density, improving safety, reducing cost, and increasing charging speed, among others. Research has been under way in

2255-470: The graphite is The positive electrode half-reaction in the lithium-doped cobalt oxide substrate is The full reaction being The overall reaction has its limits. Overdischarging supersaturates lithium cobalt oxide , leading to the production of lithium oxide , possibly by the following irreversible reaction: Overcharging up to 5.2  volts leads to the synthesis of cobalt (IV) oxide, as evidenced by x-ray diffraction : The transition metal in

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2310-562: The greatest impacts of all technologies in human history , as recognized by the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry . More specifically, Li-ion batteries enabled portable consumer electronics , laptop computers , cellular phones , and electric cars , or what has been called the e-mobility revolution. It also sees significant use for grid-scale energy storage as well as military and aerospace applications. Lithium-ion cells can be manufactured to optimize energy or power density. Handheld electronics mostly use lithium polymer batteries (with

2365-443: The internal resistance of the battery may increase, resulting in slower charging and thus longer charging times. Batteries gradually self-discharge even if not connected and delivering current. Li-ion rechargeable batteries have a self-discharge rate typically stated by manufacturers to be 1.5–2% per month. The rate increases with temperature and state of charge. A 2004 study found that for most cycling conditions self-discharge

2420-564: The late 1970s, but found the synthesis expensive and complex, as TiS 2 is sensitive to moisture and releases toxic H 2 S gas on contact with water. More prohibitively, the batteries were also prone to spontaneously catch fire due to the presence of metallic lithium in the cells. For this, and other reasons, Exxon discontinued the development of Whittingham's lithium-titanium disulfide battery. In 1980, working in separate groups Ned A. Godshall et al., and, shortly thereafter, Koichi Mizushima and John B. Goodenough , after testing

2475-435: The layers together. Although it has a lower capacity compared to graphite (~Li0.5C6, 186 mAh g–1), it became the first commercial intercalation anode for Li-ion batteries owing to its cycling stability. In 1987, Yoshino patented what would become the first commercial lithium-ion battery using this anode. He used Goodenough's previously reported LiCoO 2 as the cathode and a carbonate ester -based electrolyte. The battery

2530-428: The negative electrode is the anode and the positive electrode the cathode : electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through the external circuit. An oxidation half-reaction at the anode produces positively charged lithium ions and negatively charged electrons. The oxidation half-reaction may also produce uncharged material that remains at the anode. Lithium ions move through the electrolyte; electrons move through

2585-410: The positive electrode, cobalt ( Co ), is reduced from Co to Co during discharge, and oxidized from Co to Co during charge. The cell's energy is equal to the voltage times the charge. Each gram of lithium represents Faraday's constant /6.941, or 13,901 coulombs. At 3 V, this gives 41.7 kJ per gram of lithium, or 11.6 kWh per kilogram of lithium. This

2640-492: The positive to the negative electrode where they become embedded in the porous electrode material in a process known as intercalation . Energy losses arising from electrical contact resistance at interfaces between electrode layers and at contacts with current collectors can be as high as 20% of the entire energy flow of batteries under typical operating conditions. The charging procedures for single Li-ion cells, and complete Li-ion batteries, are slightly different: During

2695-432: The powered circuit through two pieces of metal called current collectors. The negative and positive electrodes swap their electrochemical roles ( anode and cathode ) when the cell is charged. Despite this, in discussions of battery design the negative electrode of a rechargeable cell is often just called "the anode" and the positive electrode "the cathode". In its fully lithiated state of LiC 6 , graphite correlates to

2750-457: The presence of ethylene carbonate solvent (which is solid at room temperature and is mixed with other solvents to make a liquid). This represented the final innovation of the era that created the basic design of the modern lithium-ion battery. In 2010, global lithium-ion battery production capacity was 20 gigawatt-hours. By 2016, it was 28 GWh, with 16.4 GWh in China. Global production capacity

2805-569: The tunnel is 6 metres (20 ft) wide, and the steepest grade within the tunnel is 9.9%. The tunnel, together with the Mjøsund Bridge , are part of Norwegian County Road 848 which is a ferry-free road connection between the islands of Rolla and Andørja to the mainland of Norway. This Norwegian tunnel-related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Undersea tunnel Various methods are used to construct underwater tunnels, including an immersed tube and

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2860-419: Was 767 GWh in 2020, with China accounting for 75%. Production in 2021 is estimated by various sources to be between 200 and 600 GWh, and predictions for 2023 range from 400 to 1,100 GWh. In 2012, John B. Goodenough , Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino received the 2012 IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies for developing the lithium-ion battery; Goodenough, Whittingham, and Yoshino were awarded

2915-630: Was assembled in the discharged state, which made it safer and cheaper to manufacture. In 1991, using Yoshino's design, Sony began producing and selling the world's first rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. The following year, a joint venture between Toshiba and Asashi Kasei Co. also released a lithium-ion battery. Significant improvements in energy density were achieved in the 1990s by replacing Yoshino's soft carbon anode first with hard carbon and later with graphite. In 1990, Jeff Dahn and two colleagues at Dalhousie University (Canada) reported reversible intercalation of lithium ions into graphite in

2970-413: Was done with the rock excavated for the Channel Tunnel , which was used to create Samphire Hoe . As with bridges, albeit with more chance, ferry links will also be closed during adverse weather. Strong winds or the tidal limits may also affect the workings of a ferry crossing. Travelling through a tunnel is significantly quicker than travelling using a ferry link, shown by the times for travelling through

3025-484: Was primarily time-dependent; however, after several months of stand on open circuit or float charge, state-of-charge dependent losses became significant. The self-discharge rate did not increase monotonically with state-of-charge, but dropped somewhat at intermediate states of charge. Self-discharge rates may increase as batteries age. In 1999, self-discharge per month was measured at 8% at 21 °C, 15% at 40 °C, 31% at 60 °C. By 2007, monthly self-discharge rate

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