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64-669: The correct name for the archaeological site is Ihò Eléérú, or Iho Eleru, meaning "Cave of Ashes." This name originates from its common use for fire camps which resulted in a thick ash floor covering most of its superficial surface. The site was previously known as "Iwo Eleru", first reported by Chief Officer J. Akeredolu with the Department of Antiquities in Benin, Nigeria, and published by T. Shaw and S.G.H. Daniels, most probably as an incorrect anglicized translation from its original Yoruba name. Remnants of endocarps have been directly dated;

128-411: A broad, articular surface, which is divided into two parts by a slight ridge. Projecting on either side are the lateral and medial epicondyles . The articular surface extends a little lower than the epicondyles, and is curved slightly forward; its medial extremity occupies a lower level than the lateral. The lateral portion of this surface consists of a smooth, rounded eminence, named the capitulum of

192-425: A distinct tingling sensation, and sometimes a significant amount of pain. It is sometimes popularly referred to as 'the funny bone', possibly due to this sensation (a "funny" feeling), as well as the fact that the bone's name is a homophone of 'humorous'. It lies posterior to the medial epicondyle, and is easily damaged in elbow injuries. The deltoid originates on the lateral third of the clavicle , acromion and

256-410: A fruit where the pod has an increase in internal tension to allow seeds to be released. These include the sweet pea , soybean , alfalfa , milkweed , mustard , cabbage and poppy . Dry indehiscent fruit differ in that they do not have this mechanism and simply depend on physical forces. Examples of species indehiscent fruit are sunflower seeds, nuts, and dandelions . There is a wide variety in

320-633: A time of acute aridness in the Sahara desert that made it impassable until the arrival of the African humid period . In 2014 Peter J. Waddell of Massey University argued that Iho Eleru man descended from a lineage 200–400   kya and whose extinction may have been caused by humans. Waddell also said: "Such a long apparently distinct lineage that terminated in West Africa perhaps 12   kya, with no obvious sign of living descendants, suggests that

384-617: Is a long bone in the arm that runs from the shoulder to the elbow . It connects the scapula and the two bones of the lower arm, the radius and ulna , and consists of three sections. The humeral upper extremity consists of a rounded head, a narrow neck, and two short processes ( tubercles , sometimes called tuberosities). The body is cylindrical in its upper portion, and more prismatic below. The lower extremity consists of 2 epicondyles , 2 processes ( trochlea and capitulum ), and 3 fossae ( radial fossa , coronoid fossa , and olecranon fossa ). As well as its true anatomical neck,

448-407: Is a rounded eminence forming the lateral part of the distal humerus. The head of the radius articulates with the capitulum. The trochlea is spool-shaped medial portion of the distal humerus and articulates with the ulna. The epicondyles are continuous above with the supracondylar ridges. The medial supracondylar crest forms the sharp medial border of the distal humerus continuing superiorly from

512-457: Is also a variety of dispersal methods that are used by different plants. The origins of these modes of dispersal have been found to be a more recent evolutionary change. Of the methods of dispersal, the plants that use animals have not changed in many ways from the original trait. Due to this, it may be assumed that animal dispersal is an efficient form of dispersal, however there has been no evidence that it increases dispersal distances. Therefore,

576-408: Is also referred to as albedo or pith . In citron fruit , where the mesocarp is the most prominent part, it is used to produce succade . Endocarp (from Greek: endo- , "inside" + -carp , "fruit") is a botanical term for the inside layer of the pericarp (or fruit), which directly surrounds the seeds . It may be membranous as in citrus where it is the only part consumed, or thick and hard as in

640-414: Is found between the epicarp and the endocarp. It is usually the part of the fruit that is eaten. For example, the mesocarp makes up most of the edible part of a peach, and a considerable part of a tomato. "Mesocarp" may also refer to any fruit that is fleshy throughout. In a hesperidium , the mesocarp is the inner part of the peel and is commonly removed before eating, as is found in citrus fruit . It

704-444: Is located posteroinferior to the deltoid tuberosity. The inferior boundary of the spiral groove is continuous distally with the lateral border of the shaft. The nutrient foramen of the humerus is located in the anteromedial surface of the humerus. The nutrient arteries enter the humerus through this foramen. The distal or lower extremity of the humerus is flattened from before backward, and curved slightly forward; it ends below in

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768-426: Is placed laterally. The greater tubercle is where supraspinatus , infraspinatus and teres minor muscles are attached. The crest of the greater tubercle forms the lateral lip of the bicipital groove and is the site for insertion of pectoralis major . The greater tubercle is just lateral to the anatomical neck. Its upper surface is rounded and marked by three flat impressions: the highest of these gives insertion to

832-410: Is responsible for the fruit's change of color from green to yellow upon ripening. Citrus flavedo may be scraped off the fruit to create zest . The internal region of the flavedo is rich in multicellular bodies with spherical or pyriform shapes, which are full of essential oils . The mesocarp (from Greek: meso- , "middle" + -carp , "fruit") is the fleshy middle layer of the pericarp of a fruit; it

896-403: Is slightly constricted and is termed the anatomical neck, in contradistinction to a constriction below the tubercles called the surgical neck which is frequently the seat of fracture. Fracture of the anatomical neck rarely occurs. The diameter of the humeral head is generally larger in men than in women. The anatomical neck ( collum anatomicum ) is obliquely directed, forming an obtuse angle with

960-422: Is the plant anatomy of the internal structure of fruit . In berries and drupes , the pericarp forms the edible tissue around the seeds. In other fruits such as citrus and stone fruits ( Prunus ) only some layers of the pericarp are eaten. In accessory fruits , other tissues develop into the edible portion of the fruit instead, for example the receptacle of the flower in strawberries . In fleshy fruits,

1024-401: The entepicondylar foramen to allow the passage of nerves and blood vessels. During embryonic development, the humerus is one of the first structures to ossify, beginning with the first ossification center in the shaft of the bone. Ossification of the humerus occurs predictably in the embryo and fetus, and is therefore used as a fetal biometric measurement when determining gestational age of

1088-515: The humeri appear robust and the cortical bone is moderately thick. The shafts of the radius and femur are also robust. The existing remains suggest he was of medium height and build, and was no taller than approximately 165   cm. Don Brothwell and Thurstan Shaw said in 1971 that the sloping frontal vault was more pronounced in Iho Eleru fossil than in both later Neolithic and recent sub-Saharan skull samples. However, they also found that

1152-472: The intertubercular groove of the humerus. They work to adduct and medially, or internally, rotate the humerus. The infraspinatus and teres minor insert on the greater tubercle, and work to laterally, or externally, rotate the humerus. In contrast, the subscapularis muscle inserts onto the lesser tubercle and works to medially, or internally, rotate the humerus. The biceps brachii , brachialis , and brachioradialis (which attaches distally) act to flex

1216-491: The occipital structure, nasal root and the frontal bone of the skull "would qualify for identification as that of a proto-West African negro." In 1974 Chris Stringer said that there were surprising similarities between the crania of the much older Solo Man and Omo II with that of Iho Eleru. The 2011 study found that "Iwo Eleru possesses neurocranial morphology intermediate in shape between archaic hominins ( Neanderthals and Homo erectus ) and modern humans." The authors of

1280-413: The pyrenas of drupe fruits of the family Rosaceae such as peaches , cherries , plums , and apricots . In nuts , it is the stony layer that surrounds the kernel of pecans , walnuts , etc., and that is removed before consumption. In citrus fruits , the endocarp is separated into sections, which are called segments . These segments are filled with juice vesicles , which contain the juice of

1344-400: The supraspinatus muscle ; the middle to the infraspinatus muscle ; the lowest one, and the body of the bone for about 2.5 cm. below it, to the teres minor muscle . The lateral surface of the greater tubercle is convex, rough, and continuous with the lateral surface of the body. The lesser tubercle ( tuberculum minus ; lesser tuberosity) is smaller, anterolaterally placed to the head of

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1408-505: The Iho Eleru lineage quite probably represents a distinct species of near modern human. As such, the species name Homo iwoelerueensis suggests itself." However, the University of Washington 's Fred L. Bookstein cautions against naming the fossil as a new species until more confirmatory evidence is discovered. Roughly half of a million stone tools have been discovered at Iho Eleru. Fruit (plant structure)#Endocarp Fruits are

1472-457: The Iho Eleru region of Nigeria . Some fauna found at Iho Eleru includes: bushpig ( Potamochoerus porcus ), dwarf antelope ( Neotragus batesi ?), giant pouched rat (Cricetomys sp.), rock hyrax (Procavia capensis), West African black turtle (Pelusios niger), and yellow-backed duiker (Cephalophus silvicultor). Human activity, such as foraging and butchery , occurred at Iho Eleru. Animals that have been confirmed to have been consumed at

1536-401: The actions of lifting/pulling and pressing/pushing. Primitive fossils of amphibians had little, if any, shaft connecting the upper and lower extremities, making their limbs very short. In most living tetrapods , however, the humerus has a similar form to that of humans. In many reptiles and some mammals (where it is the primitive state), the lower extremity includes a large opening called

1600-415: The anterior border of the head of the radius, when the forearm is flexed. These fossæ are separated from one another by a thin, transparent lamina of bone, which is sometimes perforated by a supratrochlear foramen ; they are lined in the fresh state by the synovial membrane of the elbow-joint , and their margins afford attachment to the anterior and posterior ligaments of this articulation. The capitulum

1664-449: The body. It is best marked in the lower half of its circumference; in the upper half it is represented by a narrow groove separating the head from the tubercles. The line separating the head from the rest of the upper end is called the anatomical neck. It affords attachment to the articular capsule of the shoulder-joint, and is perforated by numerous vascular foramens . Fracture of the anatomical neck rarely occurs. The anatomical neck of

1728-429: The constriction below the greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus is referred to as its surgical neck due to its tendency to fracture, thus often becoming the focus of surgeons. The word "humerus" is derived from Late Latin humerus , from Latin umerus , meaning upper arm, shoulder, and is linguistically related to Gothic ams (shoulder) and Greek ōmos . The upper or proximal extremity of

1792-421: The crest of the spine of the scapula. It is inserted on the deltoid tuberosity of the humerus and has several actions including abduction, extension, and circumduction of the shoulder. The supraspinatus also originates on the spine of the scapula. It inserts on the greater tubercle of the humerus, and assists in abduction of the shoulder. The pectoralis major , teres major , and latissimus dorsi insert at

1856-433: The elbow. (The biceps do not attach to the humerus.) The triceps brachii and anconeus extend the elbow, and attach to the posterior side of the humerus. The four muscles of supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor and subscapularis form a musculo-ligamentous girdle called the rotator cuff . This cuff stabilizes the very mobile but inherently unstable glenohumeral joint . The other muscles are used as counterbalances for

1920-406: The entire pericarp is fleshy but this excludes the exocarp which acts as more as a skin. There are berries that are known as pepo, a type of berry with an inseparable rind, or hesperidium , which has a separable rind. An example of a pepo is the cucumber and a lemon would be an example of a hesperidium. The fleshy portion of the pomes is developed from the floral tube and like the berry most of

1984-450: The evidence from X-rays points to little frontal sinus development. The upper face is missing except for a small collection of fragments. Parts of the maxillary-molar region have been identified (including the infraorbital foramen ) and, based on what survives, it is unlikely that the upper face was large. The mandible is well developed and has a masculine appearance, although there is no pronounced chin. Apart from two lower premolars,

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2048-415: The extremity. The grooved portion of the articular surface fits accurately within the semilunar notch of the ulna; it is broader and deeper on the posterior than on the anterior aspect of the bone, and is inclined obliquely downward and forward toward the medial side. At the shoulder, the head of the humerus articulates with the glenoid fossa of the scapula . More distally, at the elbow, the capitulum of

2112-401: The family Rubiaceae found that within the family, fleshy fruits had evolved independently at least 12 times. This means that fleshy fruits were not passed on to following generations but that this form of fruit was selected for in different species. This may imply that fleshy fruit is a favorable and beneficial trait because not only does it disperse the seeds, but it also protects them. There

2176-502: The flavedo constitutes the peripheral surface of the pericarp. It is composed of several cell layers that become progressively thicker in the internal part; the epidermic layer is covered with wax and contains few stomata , which in many cases are closed when the fruit is ripe. When ripe, the flavedo cells contain carotenoids (mostly xanthophyll ) inside chromoplasts , which, in a previous developmental stage, contained chlorophyll . This hormonally controlled progression in development

2240-556: The flower. Due to this difference the strawberry is known as a false fruit or an accessory fruit . There is a shared method of seed dispersal within fleshy fruits. These fruits depend on animals to eat the fruits and disperse the seeds in order for their populations to survive. Dry fruits also develop from the ovary, but unlike the fleshy fruits they do not depend on the mesocarp but the endocarp for seed dispersal . Dry fruits depend more on physical forces, like wind and water. Dry fruits' seeds can also perform pod shattering, which involve

2304-519: The fruit. The grains of grasses are single-seed simple fruits wherein the pericarp (ovary wall) and seed coat are fused into one layer. This type of fruit is called a caryopsis . Examples include cereal grains, such as wheat, barley, and rice. The dead pericarp of dry fruits represents an elaborated layer that is capable of storing active proteins and other substances for increasing survival rate of germinating seeds. Humerus The humerus ( / ˈ h juː m ər ə s / ; pl. : humeri )

2368-439: The fused ovaries of multiple flowers or inflorescence. An example of multiple fruits are the fig, mulberry, and the pineapple . Simple fruits are formed from a single ovary and may contain one or many seeds. They can be either fleshy or dry. In fleshy fruit, during development, the pericarp and other accessory structures become the fleshy portion of the fruit. The types of fleshy fruits are berries, pomes, and drupes. In berries,

2432-439: The humerus consists of the bone's large rounded head joined to the body by a constricted portion called the neck, and two eminences, the greater and lesser tubercles. The head ( caput humeri ), is nearly hemispherical in form. It is directed upward, medialward, and a little backward, and articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint) . The circumference of its articular surface

2496-412: The humerus ; it articulates with the cup-shaped depression on the head of the radius, and is limited to the front and lower part of the bone. Above the front part of the trochlea is a small depression, the coronoid fossa , which receives the coronoid process of the ulna during flexion of the forearm. Above the back part of the trochlea is a deep triangular depression, the olecranon fossa , in which

2560-404: The humerus articulates with the head of the radius , and the trochlea of the humerus articulates with the trochlear notch of the ulna . The axillary nerve is located at the proximal end, against the shoulder girdle. Dislocation of the humerus's glenohumeral joint has the potential to injure the axillary nerve or the axillary artery . Signs and symptoms of this dislocation include a loss of

2624-402: The humerus is an indentation distal to the head of the humerus on which the articular capsule attaches. The surgical neck is a narrow area distal to the tubercles that is a common site of fracture. It makes contact with the axillary nerve and the posterior humeral circumflex artery . The greater tubercle ( tuberculum majus ; greater tuberosity) is a large, posteriorly placed projection that

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2688-476: The humerus. The lesser tubercle provides insertion to subscapularis muscle. Both these tubercles are found in the proximal part of the shaft. The crest of the lesser tubercle forms the medial lip of the bicipital groove and is the site for insertion of teres major and latissimus dorsi muscles. The lesser tuberosity, is more prominent than the greater: it is situated in front, and is directed medialward and forward. Above and in front it presents an impression for

2752-413: The insertion of the tendon of the subscapularis muscle . The tubercles are separated from each other by a deep groove, the bicipital groove (intertubercular groove; bicipital sulcus), which lodges the long tendon of the biceps brachii muscle and transmits a branch of the anterior humeral circumflex artery to the shoulder-joint. It runs obliquely downward, and ends near the junction of the upper with

2816-450: The mature ovary or ovaries of one or more flowers . They are found in three main anatomical categories: aggregate fruits , multiple fruits , and simple fruits . In some fruits, the edible portion is not derived from the ovary, but rather from the aril , such as the mangosteen or pomegranate , and the pineapple from which tissues of the flower and stem provide food. The grains of grasses are single-seed simple fruits wherein

2880-413: The medial epicondyle. The lateral supracondylar crest forms the sharp lateral border of the distal humerus continuing superiorly from the lateral epicondyle. The medial portion of the articular surface is named the trochlea , and presents a deep depression between two well-marked borders; it is convex from before backward, concave from side to side, and occupies the anterior, lower, and posterior parts of

2944-461: The middle third of the bone. In the fresh state its upper part is covered with a thin layer of cartilage, lined by a prolongation of the synovial membrane of the shoulder-joint; its lower portion gives insertion to the tendon of the latissimus dorsi muscle . It is deep and narrow above, and becomes shallow and a little broader as it descends. Its lips are called, respectively, the crests of the greater and lesser tubercles ( bicipital ridges ), and form

3008-434: The normal shoulder contour and a palpable depression under the acromion. The radial nerve follows the humerus closely. At the midshaft of the humerus, the radial nerve travels from the posterior to the anterior aspect of the bone in the spiral groove . A fracture of the humerus in this region can result in radial nerve injury. The ulnar nerve lies at the distal end of the humerus near the elbow. When struck, it can cause

3072-474: The pericarp and seed coat are fused into one layer. This type of fruit is called a caryopsis . Examples include cereal grains , such as wheat , barley , oats and rice . Fruits are found in three main anatomical categories: aggregate fruits , multiple fruits , and simple fruits . Aggregate fruits are formed from a single compound flower and contain many ovaries or fruitlets. Examples include raspberries and blackberries . Multiple fruits are formed from

3136-680: The pericarp are usually hard, dry and not clearly distinguishable. Epicarp (from Greek : epi- , "on" or "upon" + -carp , "fruit") is a botanical term for the outermost layer of the pericarp (or fruit). The epicarp forms the tough outer skin of the fruit, if there is one. The epicarp is sometimes called the exocarp, or, especially in citrus , the flavedo (zest). Flavedo is mostly composed of cellulosic material but also contains other components, such as essential oils , paraffin waxes , steroids and triterpenoids , fatty acids , pigments ( carotenoids , chlorophylls , flavonoids ), bitter principles ( limonin ), and enzymes . In citrus fruits,

3200-403: The pericarp is fleshy but the endocarp is cartilaginous; an apple is an example of a pome. Lastly, drupes are known for being one-seeded with a fleshy mesocarp; an example of this would be the peach . However, there are fruits where the fleshy portion is developed from tissues that are not the ovary, such as in the strawberry . The edible part of the strawberry is formed from the receptacle of

3264-405: The pericarp is typically made up of three distinct layers: the outer epicarp, the middle mesocarp and the inner endocarp. These layers vary in thickness and texture, and may blend into each other. In a hesperidium like lemon , the epicarp and mesocarp make up the peel ; in many berries like melons or cucumbers (pepo) , the mesocarp and endocarp make up the flesh. In dry fruits, the layers of

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3328-421: The question remains of what evolutionary mechanism causes such dramatic diversity. It has been found, however, that simple changes within developmental regulatory genes can cause large alterations within the anatomical structure of the fruit. Even without knowing the mechanism involved in the biodiversity of fruit, it is clear that this diversity is important to the continuation of plant populations. Fruit anatomy

3392-401: The remains was revised: with the help of uranium–thorium dating , a time span of 11.7–16.3   ka was suggested. The cranial vault is relatively long and low, and the frontal bone shows moderate recession. The brow ridges are moderately developed for a male and there is no pronounced nasal root . What remains of the nasal area suggest that the nasal bridge was relatively flat, and

3456-520: The results revealed that Canarium schweinfurthii was utilized in 11,300 cal BP as the earliest in the region of West Africa , and that the utilization of canarium, as well as likely oil palm , occurred prior to 10,000 BP. Following the emergence of pottery traditions in the Ounjougou region of Mali around 11,900 BP and in the Bosumpra region of Ghana soon after, ceramics later arrived in

3520-524: The seed being ejected from the seed coat by shattering it. Some dry fruits are able to perform seed pod explosions, such as wisteria , resulting the seed to be dispersed over long distances. Like fleshy fruits, dry fruits can also depend on animals to spread their seeds by adhering to animal's fur and skin, this is known as epizoochory. Types of dry fruits include achenes , capsules , follicles or nuts . Dry fruits can also be separated into dehiscent and indehiscent fruits. Dry dehiscent fruits are described as

3584-403: The shaft has a crest, beginning just below the surgical neck of the humerus and extends till the superior tip of the deltoid tuberosity. This is where the lateral head of triceps brachii is attached. The radial sulcus, also known as the spiral groove is found on the posterior surface of the shaft and is a shallow oblique groove through which the radial nerve passes along with deep vessels. This

3648-408: The site include: African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), African savanna hare (Lepus microtis), crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata), Nile monitor (Varanus niloticus), and Ostrich ( Struthio camelus ). The Iho Eleru site is a large rock shelter in southwestern Nigeria. The skull was found in 1965 by Thurstan Shaw and his team among over half a million Later Stone Age artifacts at the site. It

3712-400: The structures of fruit across the different species of plants. Evolution has selected for certain traits in plants that would increase their fitness. This diversity arose through the selection of advantageous methods for seed protection and dispersal in different environments. It is known that dry fruits were present before fleshy fruits and fleshy fruits diverged from them. A study looking at

3776-549: The study asserted that the dating of Iho Eleru fossil to the late Pleistocene "implies that the transition to anatomical modernity in Africa was more complicated than previously thought, with late survival of “archaic” features and possibly deep population substructure in Africa during this time." It has been argued that the Iho Eleru fossil was an archaic hybrid or part of a relict archaic Homo population. In 2014 Christopher Stojanowski of Arizona State University summarised

3840-405: The summit of the olecranon is received in extension of the forearm. The coronoid fossa is the medial hollow part on the anterior surface of the distal humerus. The coronoid fossa is smaller than the olecranon fossa and receives the coronoid process of the ulna during maximum flexion of the elbow. Above the front part of the capitulum is a slight depression, the radial fossa , which receives

3904-419: The teeth are not attached to the jaws and it is uncertain where the surviving teeth were originally placed. All the anterior teeth show noticeable attrition and most of the crown has been eroded by wear. Based on the evidence of tooth wear , the age of Iho Eleru fossil has been estimated as over 30 years. What remains of the rest of the skeleton are generally crushed fragments of large bones. The shafts of

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3968-488: The three dominant explanations for Iho Eleru fossil's atypical cranial shape: the first, that Iho Eleru was a hybrid with archaic African populations; the second, that Iho Eleru fossil was a member of a relict archaic population that was replaced by more modern humans upon the onset of the Holocene era; and the third, that Iho Eleru fossil was part of a population that diverged from the rest of North Africa's populations during

4032-434: The upper parts of the anterior and medial borders of the body of the bone. The body or shaft of the humerus is triangular to cylindrical in cut section and is compressed anteroposteriorly. It has 3 surfaces, namely: Its three borders are: The deltoid tuberosity is a roughened surface on the lateral surface of the shaft of the humerus and acts as the site of insertion of deltoideus muscle. The posterorsuperior part of

4096-399: Was found as part of a skeleton that was buried with a thin covering of soil. The skeleton was excavated and encased in plaster, and the skull was separated from the rest of the body. On the basis of charcoal remains that were found surrounding the skeleton, it was initially dated 9250 BC ± 200. However, in a 2011 study conducted by Katerina Harvati , Chris Stringer and others, the dating of

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