123-664: Johnston Atoll is an unincorporated territory of the United States, under the jurisdiction of the United States Air Force (USAF). The island is closed to public entry, and limited access for management needs is only granted by a letter of authorization from the USAF. A special use permit is also required from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) to access the island by boat or enter
246-404: A PBY-6A Catalina had to make a forced landing during a flight from Kwajalein to Johnston Island. The plane was damaged beyond repair, and the crew of 11 was rescued nine hours later by a Navy ship, which sank the plane using gunfire. In 1958, a proposed support agreement for Navy Seaplane operations at Johnston Island was under discussion, though it was never completed because a requirement for
369-503: A hot semi-arid climate ( Köppen : BSh ; Trewartha : BSha ). It is a dry atoll with just over 26 inches (660 mm) of annual rainfall. About 300 species of fish have been recorded from the reefs and inshore waters of the atoll. It is also visited by green turtles and Hawaiian monk seals . The possibility of humpback whales using the waters as a breeding ground has been suggested, albeit in small numbers and with irregular occurrences. Many other cetaceans possibly migrate through
492-614: A 1.4- megaton explosion, using a W49 warhead at an altitude of about 400 kilometers (250 miles). It created a very brief fireball visible over a wide area, plus bright artificial auroras visible in Hawaii for several minutes. "Starfish Prime" also produced an electromagnetic pulse that disrupted some electric power and communication systems in Hawaii. It pumped enough radiation into the Van Allen belts to destroy or damage seven satellites in orbit. The final Fishbowl launch that used
615-498: A 2,000-foot (610 m) causeway to Sand Island. Three seaplane landings were cleared, one 11,000 feet (3,400 m) by 1,000 feet (300 m) and two cross-landings each 7,000 feet (2,100 m) by 800 feet (240 m) and dredged to a depth of 8 feet (2.4 m). Sand Island had barracks built for 400 men, a mess hall, an underground hospital, a radio station, water tanks, and a 100 feet (30 m) steel control tower. In December 1943 an additional 10 acres (4.0 hectares) of parking
738-478: A 3,600 feet (1,100 m) seaplane landing. Several seaplanes made flights from Hawaii to Johnston, such as that of a squadron of six aircraft in November 1935. In November 1939, civilian contractors commenced further work on Sand Island to allow the operation of one squadron of patrol planes with tender support. Part of the lagoon was dredged, and the excavated material was used to make a parking area connected by
861-762: A GDP of $ 104.989 billion in 2019, to American Samoa, which has a GDP of $ 636 million in 2018. In 2018, Puerto Rico exported about $ 18 billion in goods, with the Netherlands as the largest destination. Guam's GDP shrank by 0.3% in 2018, the GDP of the Northern Mariana Islands shrank by 19.6% in 2018, Puerto Rico's GDP grew by 1.18% in 2019, and the U.S. Virgin Islands' GDP grew by 1.5% in 2018. In 2017, American Samoa's GDP shrank by 5.8%, but then grew by 2.2% in 2018. American Samoa has
984-497: A Thor missile carried the "Kingfish" 400-kiloton warhead up to its 98-kilometer (61 mi) detonation altitude. Although it was officially one of the Operation Fishbowl tests, it is sometimes not listed among high-altitude nuclear tests because of its lower detonation altitude. "Tightrope" was the final test of Operation Fishbowl and detonated on November 3, 1962. It launched on a nuclear-armed Nike-Hercules missile and
1107-522: A U.S. citizen parent. U.S. nationals without U.S. citizenship may hold U.S. passports and reside in any part of the United States without restriction. However, to become U.S. citizens they must apply for naturalization, like foreigners, and may only do so while residing in parts of the United States other than American Samoa. Foreign nationals residing in American Samoa cannot apply for U.S. citizenship or U.S. nationality at all. Each territory
1230-578: A U.S. court in Puerto Rico: The United States District Court is not a true United States court established under article 3 of the Constitution to administer the judicial power of the United States ... It is created ... by the sovereign congressional faculty, granted under article 4, 3, of that instrument, of making all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory belonging to
1353-483: A U.S. territory) sets Puerto Rico apart judicially from the other unincorporated territories, and U.S. district judge Gustavo Gelpí has expressed the opinion that Puerto Rico is no longer unincorporated: Bulwer%27s petrel Bulwer's petrel ( Bulweria bulwerii ) is a small petrel in the family Procellariidae that is found in tropical and subtropical regions of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. It
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#17327811626781476-476: A destruct signal 65 seconds after launch, and the missile was destroyed at approximately 10.6 kilometers (6.6 miles) altitude—the warhead high explosive detonated in a 1-point safe fashion, destroying the warhead without producing nuclear yield. Large pieces of the plutonium-contaminated missile, including fragments of the warhead, booster rocket, engine, re-entry vehicle, and missile parts, fell back on Johnston Island. More wreckage, along with plutonium contamination,
1599-539: A diplomatic conference over this temporary occupation of the island. However, the Kingdom of Hawaii was overthrown the following day (January 17). By 1898, the United States had taken possession, and a US Territorial Government was established. On September 11, 1909, this office leased Johnston Atoll to a private citizen, Max Schlemmen of Honolulu, for agricultural purposes. The lease stipulated planting of coconut trees, and that "lessee will not allow use of explosives . . in
1722-618: A federal bird refuge and placed it under the U.S. Department of Agriculture , as a "refuge and breeding ground for native birds." Johnston Atoll was added to the United States National Wildlife Refuge system in 1926, and renamed the Johnston Island National Wildlife Refuge in 1940. The Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge was established to protect the tropical ecosystem and the wildlife that it harbors. However,
1845-530: A federal territorial court, and so federal matters in American Samoa are sent to either the District court of Hawaii or the District court of the District of Columbia . American Samoa is the only permanently inhabited region of the United States with no federal court. While the U.S. mainland is majority non-Hispanic White , this is not the case for the U.S. territories. In 2010, American Samoa's population
1968-473: A new LORAN rate in the Central Pacific. The new rate between Johnston Island and French Frigate Shoals gave a higher order of accuracy for fixing positions in the steamship lanes from Oahu, Hawaii, to Midway Island. In the past, this was impossible in some areas along this important shipping route. The original U.S. Coast Guard LORAN-A Station on Johnston Island ceased operations on June 30, 1961, when
2091-469: A parallel taxiway, and a large paved ramp along the southeast side of the runway. In February 1941, Johnston Atoll was designated a Naval Defensive Sea Area and Airspace Reservation. On the day the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941, USS Indianapolis was out of her home port of Pearl Harbor to make a simulated bombardment at Johnston Island. Japan's strike at Pearl Harbor occurred as
2214-513: A part of " Operation Dominic " nuclear weapons tests in the Pacific. The first launch in "Operation Fishbowl" was a successful research and development launch with no warhead . In the end, "Operation Fishbowl" produced four successful high-altitude detonations: " Starfish Prime ," " Checkmate ," " Bluegill Triple Prime ," and " Kingfish ." In addition, it produced one atmospheric nuclear explosion, " Tightrope ." On July 9, 1962, "Starfish Prime" had
2337-584: A result, these territories are often considered colonies of the United States. All modern inhabited territories under the control of the federal government can be considered as part of the "United States" for purposes of law as defined in specific legislation. However, the judicial term "unincorporated" was coined to legitimize the late-19th-century territorial acquisitions without citizenship and their administration without constitutional protections temporarily until Congress made other provisions. The case law allowed Congress to impose discriminatory tax regimes with
2460-568: A shoal near the islands. The ship's captain, Joseph Pierpont, published his experience in several American newspapers the following year, accurately portraying Johnston and Sand Island along with part of the reef. Still, he did not name or lay claim to the area. The islands were not officially named until Captain Charles J. Johnston of the Royal Naval ship HMS Cornwallis sighted them on December 14, 1807. The ship's journal recorded: "on
2583-551: A short time before becoming states, while others remained territories for decades. The shortest-lived was Alabama Territory at two years, while New Mexico Territory and Hawaii Territory both lasted more than 50 years. Of the 50 states, 31 were once part of an organized, incorporated U.S. territory. In addition to the original 13, six subsequent states never were: Kentucky , Maine , and West Virginia were each separated from an existing state; Texas and Vermont were both sovereign states ( de facto sovereignty for Vermont, as
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#17327811626782706-469: A small tramline up the slope of the low hill to facilitate the removal of guano. Neither the quantity nor the quality of the guano was sufficient to cover the cost of gathering it, and the project was soon abandoned. The Tanager Expedition was a joint expedition sponsored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Bishop Museum of Hawaii , which visited the atoll in 1923. The expedition to
2829-468: A sovereignty separate from that of the federal government and each federally recognized Native American tribe possesses limited tribal sovereignty as a "dependent sovereign nation". Territories are classified by incorporation and whether they have an "organized" government through an organic act passed by the Congress . American territories are under American sovereignty and may be treated as part of
2952-607: A wide distribution through tropical and subtropical regions of the Atlantic , Indian and Pacific oceans, it is a year-round resident in Cabo Verde , China , French Guiana , Indonesia , Japan , Malaysia , Mauritania , Morocco , Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha , Senegal and Taiwan , it breeds in the Macaronesian Islands and continental Portugal in the Atlantic; and from eastern China and
3075-633: Is disputed by Haiti , Wake Island is disputed by the Marshall Islands , Swains Island (a part of American Samoa ) is disputed by Tokelau , and Bajo Nuevo Bank and Serranilla Bank are both administered by Colombia, whose claim is disputed by the U.S. and Jamaica . The following two territories are claimed by multiple countries (including the United States) and are not included in ISO 3166-2:UM . However, they are sometimes grouped with
3198-482: Is home to thriving communities of nesting seabirds and has significant marine biodiversity. USAF and USFWS teams conduct environmental monitoring and maintenance to protect the native wildlife. Johnston Atoll is a 1,300-hectare (3,200-acre) atoll in the North Pacific Ocean , located about 750 nautical miles (1,390 km ; 860 mi ) southwest of the island of Hawaiʻi , and is grouped as one of
3321-743: Is in the Southern Hemisphere , while the other four are in the Northern Hemisphere . In 2020, their combined population was about 3.62 million, over 90% of which is accounted for by Puerto Rico alone. People born in Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands acquire U.S. citizenship by birth , and foreign nationals residing there may apply for U.S. citizenship by naturalization . People born in American Samoa acquire U.S. nationality but not U.S. citizenship by birth if they do not have
3444-470: Is named after the English naturalist James Bulwer . Bulwer's petrel was formally described in 1828 by the naturalists Jardine and Selby who coined the binomial name Procellaria bulwerii . The specific epithet was chosen to acknowledge the artist and naturalist James Bulwer who had collected the type specimen on the island of Madeira. Bulwer's petrel is now placed in the genus Bulweria that
3567-542: Is self-governing with three branches of government, including a locally elected governor and a territorial legislature. Each territory elects a non-voting member (a non-voting resident commissioner in the case of Puerto Rico) to the U.S. House of Representatives . Although they cannot vote on the passage of legislation, they can introduce legislation, have floor privileges to address the house, be members of and vote in committees, are assigned offices and staff funding, and may nominate constituents from their territories to
3690-460: Is technically "unorganized". All of the U.S. territories without permanent non-military populations are unorganized. The Office of Insular Affairs coordinates federal administration of the U.S. territories and freely associated states, except for Puerto Rico. On March 3, 1849, the last day of the 30th Congress, a bill was passed to create the U.S. Department of the Interior to take charge of
3813-569: Is visited by migratory shorebirds , including the Pacific golden plover , wandering tattler , bristle-thighed curlew , ruddy turnstone and sanderling . The island, with its surrounding marine waters, has been recognized as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International for its seabird colonies . The first list of plants cataloged on Johnston Atoll was published in Vascular Plants of Johnston and Wake Islands (1931), based on
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3936-483: The Army , Naval , Air Force and Merchant Marine academies. As of the 118th Congress , the territories are represented by Aumua Amata Radewagen (R) of American Samoa, James Moylan (R) of Guam, Gregorio Sablan (D) of Northern Mariana Islands, Jenniffer González -Colón (R-PNP) of Puerto Rico and Stacey Plaskett (D) of U.S. Virgin Islands. The District of Columbia 's delegate is Eleanor Holmes Norton (D); like
4059-847: The Bonin Islands , east to the Hawaiian Islands , the Marquesas Islands , the United States Minor Outlying Islands and Kiribati in the Pacific. It is marine and highly pelagic, usually found far from land except during the breeding season. This species has been sighted in Europe as a rare vagrant to Ireland , the Netherlands , France and Italy . It has also appeared as a vagrant in North America , with rare sightings far off
4182-738: The Kansas and Nebraska Territories, bringing organized government to the region once again. The creation of Kansas and Nebraska left the Indian Territory as the only unorganized territory in the Great Plains. In 1858, the western part of the Minnesota Territory became unorganized when it was not included in the new state of Minnesota ; this area was organized in 1861 as part of the Dakota Territory . In 1890,
4305-782: The Northern Mariana Islands , Puerto Rico , and the U.S. Virgin Islands ) are permanently inhabited, unincorporated territories; the other nine are small islands, atolls, and reefs with no native (or permanent) population. Of the nine, only one is classified as an incorporated territory ( Palmyra Atoll ). Two additional territories ( Bajo Nuevo Bank and Serranilla Bank ) are claimed by the U.S. but administered by Colombia . Historically, territories were created to administer newly acquired land, and most eventually attained statehood . The most recent territories to become U.S. states were Alaska on January 3, 1959, and Hawaii on August 21, 1959. Politically and economically,
4428-742: The Pacific Ocean while Navassa Island is in the Caribbean Sea . The additional claimed territories of Bajo Nuevo Bank and Serranilla Bank are also located in the Caribbean Sea. Palmyra Atoll (formally known as the United States Territory of Palmyra Island) is the only incorporated territory, a status it has maintained since Hawaii became a state in 1959. All are uninhabited except for Midway Atoll, whose approximately 40 inhabitants (as of 2004) were employees of
4551-931: The Secretary of Defense . Over the years, sequential descendant organizations have been the Defense Atomic Support Agency (DASA) from 1959 to 1971, the Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA) from 1971 to 1996, and the Defense Special Weapons Agency (DSWA) from 1996 to 1998. In 1998, Defense Special Weapons Agency and selected elements of the Office of Secretary of Defense were combined to form the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA). In 1999, host-management responsibility transferred from
4674-412: The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and their services provider; Palmyra Atoll, whose population varies from four to 20 Nature Conservancy and Fish and Wildlife staff and researchers; and Wake Island, which has a population of about 100 military personnel and civilian employees. The two-letter abbreviation for the islands collectively is "UM". The status of several islands is disputed. Navassa Island
4797-532: The United States Department of the Interior . On February 14, 1941, President Franklin Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8682 to create naval defense areas in the central Pacific territories. The proclamation established the "Johnston Island Naval Defensive Sea Area", encompassing the territorial waters between the extreme high-water marks and the three-mile marine boundaries surrounding
4920-439: The United States Minor Outlying Islands . The atoll, which is located on a coral reef platform, has four islands. Johnston Island and Sand Island are both enlarged natural features, while Akau (North) and Hikina (East) are two artificial islands formed by coral dredging . By 1964, dredge and fill operations had increased the size of Johnston Island to 596 acres (241 ha) from its original 46 acres (19 ha), increased
5043-622: The United States Navy under the 14th Naval District, Pearl Harbor, to establish an air station , and also to the United States Department of the Interior to administer the bird refuge. In 1948, the USAF assumed control of the atoll. During the Operation Hardtack nuclear test series from April 22 to August 19, 1958, the administration of Johnston Atoll was assigned to the Commander of Joint Task Force 7 . After
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5166-537: The federal district ) which were given a measure of self-governance by Congress through an organic act subject to the Congress's plenary powers under the territorial clause of the Constitution's Article Four, section 3. The term unorganized was historically applied either to a newly acquired region not yet constituted as an organized incorporated territory (e.g. the Louisiana Purchase prior to
5289-509: The lowest per capita income in the United States—it has a per capita income comparable to that of Botswana . In 2010, American Samoa's per capita income was $ 6,311. As of 2010, the Manu'a District in American Samoa had a per capita income of $ 5,441, the lowest of any county or county-equivalent in the United States. In 2018, Puerto Rico had a median household income of $ 20,166 (lower than
5412-498: The 14th [December] made a new discovery, viz. two very low islands, in lat. 16° 52′ N. long. 190° 26′ E., having a dangerous reef to the east of them, and the whole not exceeding four miles in extent". In 1856, the United States enacted the Guano Islands Act , which allowed US citizens to take possession of uninhabited and unclaimed islands containing guano deposits. Under this act, William Parker and R. F. Ryan chartered
5535-404: The 2010s, the U.S. territories (overall) lost population. The combined population of the five inhabited territories was 4,100,594 in 2010, and 3,569,284 in 2020. The U.S. territories have high religiosity rates —American Samoa has the highest religiosity rate in the United States (99.3% religious and 98.3% Christian). The economies of the U.S. territories vary from Puerto Rico, which has
5658-632: The Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, under this law; most have been abandoned. It also has acquired territories since 1856 under other circumstances, such as under the Treaty of Paris (1898) which ended the Spanish–American War. The Supreme Court considered the constitutional position of these unincorporated territories in 1922 in Balzac v. People of Porto Rico , and said the following about
5781-598: The Court said that the U.S. Constitution did not fully apply in unincorporated territories because they were inhabited by "alien races". The U.S. had no unincorporated territories (also known as overseas possessions or insular areas) until 1856. Congress enacted the Guano Islands Act that year, authorizing the president to take possession of unclaimed islands to mine guano . The U.S. has taken control of (and claimed rights on) many islands and atolls, especially in
5904-692: The Defense Threat Reduction Agency once again to the Air Force until the Air Force mission ended in 2004 and the base was closed. In 1935, personnel from the US Navy's Patrol Wing Two carried out some minor construction to develop the atoll for seaplane operation. In 1936, the Navy began the first of many changes to enlarge the atoll's land area. They erected some buildings and a boat landing on Sand Island and blasted coral to clear
6027-460: The Department of Agriculture had no ships, and the United States Navy was interested in the atoll for strategic reasons, so with Executive Order 6935 on December 29, 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt placed the islands under the "control and jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Navy for administrative purposes", but subject to use as a refuge and breeding ground for native birds, under
6150-552: The Northern Mariana Islands' four municipalities, and American Samoa's three districts and two atolls as county equivalents. The Census Bureau also counts each of the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands as county equivalents. For statistical purposes, the U.S. Census Bureau has a defined area called the "Island Areas" which consists of American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands (every major territory except Puerto Rico). The U.S. Census Bureau often treats Puerto Rico as its own entity or groups it with
6273-520: The Pacific. Air Transport Command aeromedical evacuation planes stopped at Johnston en route to Hawaii. Following V-J Day on August 14, 1945, Johnston Atoll saw the flow of men and aircraft coming from the mainland into the Pacific turn around. By 1947, over 1,300 B-29 and B-24 bombers had passed through the Marianas , Kwajalein , Johnston Island, and Oahu en route to Mather Field and civilian life. Following World War II, Johnston Atoll Airport
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#17327811626786396-551: The Tanager Expedition (1923) collections. Three species were described: Lepturus repens , Boerhavia diffusa , and Tribulus cistoides . In the 1940s, when the island was used for aviation activities for the war, Pluchea odorata was introduced from Honolulu . The first Western record of the atoll was on September 2, 1796, when the Boston-based American brig Sally accidentally grounded on
6519-438: The U.S. proper in some ways and not others (i.e., territories belong to, but are not considered part of the U.S.). Unincorporated territories in particular are not considered to be integral parts of the U.S., and the U.S. Constitution applies only partially in those territories. The U.S. administers three territories in the Caribbean Sea and eleven in the Pacific Ocean . Five territories ( American Samoa , Guam ,
6642-515: The U.S. Minor Outlying Islands. According to the GAO, "the United States conducts maritime law enforcement operations in and around Serranilla Bank and Bajo Nuevo [Bank] consistent with U.S. sovereignty claims." Pursuant to a series of Supreme Court rulings, Congress decides whether a territory is incorporated or unincorporated. The U.S. Constitution applies to each incorporated territory (including its local government and inhabitants) as it applies to
6765-495: The United States. The resemblance of its jurisdiction to that of true United States courts, in offering an opportunity to nonresidents of resorting to a tribunal not subject to local influence, does not change its character as a mere territorial court. In Glidden Company v. Zdanok , the Court cited Balzac and said about courts in unincorporated territories: "Upon like considerations, Article III has been viewed as inapplicable to courts created in unincorporated territories outside
6888-470: The area, including Cuvier's beaked whales . Seabird species recorded as breeding on the atoll include Bulwer's petrel , wedge-tailed shearwater , Christmas shearwater , white-tailed tropicbird , red-tailed tropicbird , brown booby , red-footed booby , masked booby , great frigatebird , spectacled tern , sooty tern , brown noddy , black noddy , and white tern . It is the world's largest colony of red-tailed tropicbirds, with 10,800 nests in 2020. It
7011-557: The atoll "Kalama" and the nearby smaller island "Cornwallis." Returning on July 22, 1858, the captain of the Palestine again hoisted the American flag to re-assert US sovereignty over the island. On July 27, however, the "derelict and abandoned" atoll was declared part of the domain of Kamehameha IV. On its July visit, however, the Palestine left two crew members on the island to gather phosphate . Later that year, Kamehameha revoked
7134-499: The atoll and proceeded to lengthen the runway to 6,000 feet (1,800 m). The runway was lengthened and improved as the island was enlarged. During World War II , Johnston Atoll was used as a refueling base for submarines and also as an aircraft refueling stop for American bombers transiting the Pacific Ocean, including the Boeing B-29 Enola Gay . By 1944, the atoll was one of the busiest air transport terminals in
7257-469: The atoll consisted of two teams accompanied by destroyer convoys, with the first departing Honolulu on July 7, 1923, aboard the USS ; Whippoorwill , which conducted the first survey of Johnston Island in the 20th century. Aerial survey and mapping flights over Johnston were conducted with a Douglas DT-2 floatplane carried on her fantail, which was hoisted into the water for takeoff. July 10–22, 1923,
7380-773: The atoll was recorded in a pioneering aerial photography project. The USS Tanager left Honolulu on July 16 and joined up with the Whippoorwill to complete the survey and then traveled to Wake Island to complete surveys there. Tents were pitched on the southwest beach of fine white sand, and a thorough biological survey was made. Hundreds of sea birds of a dozen kinds were the principal inhabitants, together with lizards, insects, and hermit crabs. The reefs and shallow water abounded with fish and other marine life. On June 29, 1926, by Executive Order 4467 , President Calvin Coolidge established Johnston Island Reservation as
7503-474: The atoll's guano deposits had been almost entirely depleted (mined out) by U.S. interests operating under the Guano Islands Act. In 1892, HMS Champion surveyed and mapped the island to determine its suitability as a telegraph cable station. (This investigation was dropped when it was decided to run the cable via Fanning Island ). On January 16, 1893, the Hawaiian Legation at London convened
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#17327811626787626-515: The atoll. "Johnston Island Naval Airspace Reservation" was also established to restrict access to the airspace over the naval defense sea area. Only U.S. government ships and aircraft were permitted to enter the naval defense areas at Johnston unless authorized by the Secretary of the Navy . In 1990, two full-time U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service personnel, a Refuge Manager and a biologist, were stationed on Johnston Atoll to handle increased biological, contaminant, and resource conflict activities. After
7749-662: The authority of section 2 of the Antiquities Act , the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument was established by President George W. Bush to administer and protect Johnston Island along with six other Pacific islands. The national monument includes Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge within its boundaries and contains 696 acres (2.82 km) of land and over 800,000 acres (3,200 km) of water area. The Administration of President Barack Obama in 2014 extended
7872-716: The breeding season). Its diet mainly consists of small fish (such as sardines ) and squid , with some additional crustaceans (such as crabs , krill , and shrimp ) and plankton . In the North East Atlantic, the species is predated by cats, house rats and endemic invertebrates. Feral cats are considered a major driver of the present distribution of the species. In the Azores , breeding areas are restricted to steep cliffs to avoid cat predation. In one colony on Madeira, predation of Shearwater chicks by Madeiran wall lizards has been recorded in up to 10% of nests, though it
7995-410: The breeding season. This petrel lays a clutch of one egg, although young and inexperienced birds will occasionally lay two eggs. The egg is beige-white and usually measures 42 by 30 millimetres (1.7 in × 1.2 in). Both sexes incubate the eggs for a period of 42 to 46 days. They will also both feed the chicks. Bulwer's petrel is highly pelagic , and rarely found near land (except during
8118-410: The cases of Indian reservations, through the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), and island dependencies administered by the Office of Insular Affairs. The U.S. has five permanently inhabited territories: Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands in the Caribbean Sea , Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands in the North Pacific Ocean , and American Samoa in the South Pacific Ocean. American Samoa
8241-467: The chemical munitions to Johnston Atoll, the Surgeon General, Public Health Service, reviewed the shipment and the Johnston Atoll storage plans. His recommendations caused the Secretary of Defense to issue instructions in December 1970 to suspend missile launches and all non-essential aircraft flights. As a result, Air Micronesia's service was immediately discontinued, and missile firings were terminated, except for two 1975 satellite launches deemed critical to
8364-442: The coast of both California and North Carolina and Australia. Nests are built in burrows, vegetation, cliff caves/crevices, and under man-made debris and onshore driftwood. It does not excavate these burrows. The breeding season for Bulwer's petrel starts in April and May. When breeding, it will always return to its previous nest site and mate with its previous mate. Breeding pairs form colonies of 7,000-9,000 pairs during
8487-430: The continental territories. The Court also established the doctrine of territorial incorporation, in which the Constitution applies fully to incorporated territories (such as the then-territories of Alaska and Hawaii ) and partially in the unincorporated territories of Guam , Puerto Rico , and, at the time, the Philippines (which is no longer a U.S. territory). In the 1901 Supreme Court case Downes v. Bidwell ,
8610-465: The control of the U.S. military since 1934. During that time, it was variously used as a naval refueling depot, an airbase , a testing site for nuclear and biological weapons , a secret missile base, and a site for the storage and disposal of chemical weapons and Agent Orange . Those activities left the area environmentally contaminated. The USAF completed remediating the contamination in 2004 and performs only periodic monitoring today. The island
8733-404: The courts in the fifty states); it became an Article III court in 1966. This means that, unlike other U.S. territories, federal judges in Puerto Rico have life tenure. Federal courts in Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands and the U.S. Virgin Islands are Article IV territorial courts . The following is a list of federal territorial courts, plus Puerto Rico's court: American Samoa does not have
8856-575: The district, the territories have no vote in Congress and no representation in the Senate . Additionally, the Cherokee Nation has delegate-elect Kimberly Teehee , who has not been seated by Congress. Every four years, U.S. political parties nominate presidential candidates at conventions which include delegates from the territories. U.S. citizens living in the territories can vote for presidential candidates in these primary elections but not in
8979-550: The effect of a protective tariff upon territorial regions which were not domestic states. In 2022, the United States Supreme Court in United States v. Vaello Madero held that the territorial clause of the constitution allowed wide congressional latitude in mandating "reasonable" tax and benefit schemes in Puerto Rico and the other territories, which are different from the states, but did not address
9102-442: The establishment of Orleans Territory and the District of Louisiana ), or to a region previously part of an organized incorporated territory left "unorganized" after part of it had been organized and achieved the requirements for statehood (e.g. a large portion of Missouri Territory became unorganized territory for several years after its southeastern section became the state of Missouri ). The Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 created
9225-444: The exemption of island residents from most federal income taxes provides a "rational basis" for their exclusion from eligibility for SSI payments. American Samoa is the only U.S. territory with its own immigration system (a system separate from the United States immigration system). American Samoa also has a communal land system in which 90% of the land is communally owned; ownership is based on Samoan ancestry. Except for Guam,
9348-495: The general election. The territorial capitals are Pago Pago (American Samoa), Hagåtña (Guam), Saipan (Northern Mariana Islands), San Juan (Puerto Rico) and Charlotte Amalie (U.S. Virgin Islands). Their governors are Lemanu Peleti Mauga ( American Samoa ), Lou Leon Guerrero ( Guam ), Ralph Torres ( Northern Mariana Islands ), Pedro Pierluisi ( Puerto Rico ) and Albert Bryan ( U.S. Virgin Islands ). Among
9471-465: The governments of the U.S. territories following completion of the 2022 United States elections . Instances where local and national party affiliation differs, the national affiliation is listed second. Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands have unicameral territorial legislatures. Each of the five major territories has its own local court system: Of the five major territories, only Puerto Rico has an Article III federal district court (i.e., equivalent to
9594-453: The incorporated/unincorporated distinction. In a concurrence with the court's overall ruling on the propriety of the differential tax structures, one of the justices opined that it was time to overrule the incorporation doctrine, as wrongly decided and founded in racism, the dissent agreed. The U.S. Supreme Court , in its 1901–1905 Insular Cases opinions, ruled that the Constitution extended ex proprio vigore (i.e., of its own force) to
9717-437: The inhabited territories lost population in 2020. Although the territories have higher poverty rates than the mainland U.S., they have high Human Development Indexes . Four of the five territories have another official language, in addition to English. The territories do not have administrative counties . The U.S. Census Bureau counts Puerto Rico's 78 municipalities , the U.S. Virgin Islands' three main islands, all of Guam,
9840-421: The inhabited territories, Supplemental Security Income (SSI) is available only in the Northern Mariana Islands; however, in 2019 a U.S. judge ruled that the federal government's denial of SSI benefits to residents of Puerto Rico is unconstitutional. This ruling was later overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court , allowing for the exclusion of territories from such programs. In the decision, the court explained that
9963-506: The internal affairs of United States territory . The Interior Department has a wide range of responsibilities (which include the regulation of territorial governments, the basic responsibilities for public lands, and other various duties). In contrast to similarly named Departments in other countries, the United States Department of the Interior is not responsible for local government or for civil administration except in
10086-513: The island and surrounding areas with weapons-grade plutonium and americium that remains an issue to this day. The failure of the "Bluegill" launch created in effect a dirty bomb but did not release the nuclear warhead's plutonium debris onto Johnston Atoll as the missile fell into the ocean south of the island and was not recovered. However, the "Starfish", "Bluegill Prime", and "Bluegill Double Prime" test launch failures in 1962 scattered radioactive debris over Johnston Island contaminating it,
10209-418: The island's mission. There were many times when the runway was needed for emergency landings for civil and military aircraft. When the runway was decommissioned, it could no longer be a potential emergency landing place when planning flight routes across the Pacific Ocean. As of 2003, the airfield at Johnston Atoll consisted of an unmaintained closed single 9,000 feet (2,700 m) asphalt/concrete runway 5/23,
10332-423: The island. The lagoon was again dredged in 1963–1964 and used to expand Johnston Island from 220 to 625 acres (89 to 253 ha), recontaminating additional portions of the island. On October 15, 1962, the " Bluegill Double Prime " test also misfired. During the test, the rocket was destroyed at a height of 109,000 feet after it malfunctioned 90 seconds into the flight. U.S. Defense Department officials confirm that
10455-516: The lagoon, and Sand Island with plutonium for decades. " Starfish ", a high altitude Thor launched nuclear test scheduled for June 20, 1962, was the first to contaminate the atoll. The rocket with the 1.45-megaton Starfish device (W49 warhead and the MK-4 re-entry vehicle ) on its nose was launched that evening, but the Thor missile engine cut out only 59 seconds after launch. The range safety officer sent
10578-488: The lease granted to Allen when he learned the atoll had been claimed previously by the United States. However, this did not prevent the Hawaiian Territory from making use of the atoll or asserting ownership. In 1872, Parker's widow sued for title to the island based on her husband's development work there. The US Attorney General denied that claim because Parker had sold his share several years before. By 1890,
10701-556: The local governments and residents of a state. Incorporated territories are considered to be integral parts of the U.S., rather than possessions. In unincorporated territories, " fundamental rights apply as a matter of law, but other constitutional rights are not available", raising concerns about how citizens in these territories can influence politics in the United States . Selected constitutional provisions apply, depending on congressional acts and judicial rulings according to U.S. constitutional practice, local tradition, and law. As
10824-525: The mainland ... and to the consular courts established by concessions from foreign countries". The judiciary determined that incorporation involves express declaration or an implication strong enough to exclude any other view, raising questions about Puerto Rico's status. In 1966, Congress made the United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico an Article III district court . This (the only district court in
10947-561: The median household income of any state). Also in 2018, Comerío Municipality, Puerto Rico had a median household income of $ 12,812 (the lowest median household income of any populated county or county-equivalent in the U.S.) Guam has much higher incomes (Guam had a median household income of $ 48,274 in 2010.) The United States Minor Outlying Islands are small uninhabited islands, atolls , and reefs. Baker Island , Howland Island , Jarvis Island , Johnston Atoll , Kingman Reef , Midway Atoll , Palmyra Atoll , and Wake Island are in
11070-670: The military mission on the island ended in 2004, the atoll was administered by the Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge Complex . The outer islets and water rights were managed cooperatively by the Fish and Wildlife Service, with some of the actual Johnston Island land mass remaining under the control of the United States Air Force (USAF) for environmental remediation and the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) for plutonium cleanup purposes. However, on January 6, 2009, under
11193-456: The missiles' systems failed during launch and were aborted. The second launch of the Fishbowl series, " Bluegill ", carried an active warhead. Bluegill was "lost" by a defective range safety tracking radar and had to be destroyed 10 minutes after liftoff, even though it probably ascended successfully. The subsequent nuclear weapon launch failures from Johnston Atoll caused severe contamination to
11316-568: The new station on nearby Sand Island began transmitting using a larger 180-foot antenna. The LORAN-C station was disestablished on July 1, 1992, and all Coast Guard personnel, electronic equipment, and property departed that month. Buildings on Sand Island were transferred to other activities. LORAN whip antennas on Johnston and Sand Islands were removed, and the 625-foot LORAN tower and antenna were demolished on December 3, 1992. The LORAN A and C stations and buildings on Sand Island were then dismantled and removed. Between 1958 and 1975, Johnston Atoll
11439-501: The operation failed to materialize. By September 1941, construction of an airfield on Johnston Island commenced. A 4,000-by-500-foot (1,220 by 150 m) runway was built with two 400-man barracks, two mess halls, a cold-storage building, an underground hospital, a fresh-water plant, shop buildings, and fuel storage. The runway was complete by December 7, 1941, though in December 1943, the 99th Naval Construction Battalion arrived at
11562-484: The protected area to encompass the entire Exclusive Economic Zone , by banning all commercial fishing activities. Under a 2017 review of all national monuments extended since 1996, then-Secretary of the Interior Ryan Zinke recommended permitting fishing outside the 12-mile limit. On December 29, 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt with Executive Order 6935 transferred control of Johnston Atoll to
11685-475: The range safety officer fired the destruct system while the missile was still on the launch pad. The Johnston Island launch complex was demolished in the subsequent explosions and fire, which burned through the night. The launch emplacement and portions of the island were contaminated with radioactive plutonium spread by the blast, fire, and wind-blown smoke. Afterward, the Johnston Island launch complex
11808-506: The reef crest on the northwest portion of the atoll does provide for a shallow lagoon , with depths ranging from 3 to 10 m (10 to 33 ft). The climate is tropical but generally dry. Northeast trade winds are consistent. There is little seasonal temperature variation. With elevation ranging from sea level to 5 m (16 ft) at Summit Peak, the islands contain some low-growing vegetation and palm trees on mostly flat terrain, and no natural freshwater resources. Johnston Atoll has
11931-541: The region was claimed by New York) when they entered the Union; and California was part of unorganized land ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848 at the end of the Mexican–American War . All of the five major U.S. territories are permanently inhabited and have locally elected territorial legislatures and executives and some degree of political autonomy . Four of the five are "organized", but American Samoa
12054-464: The revetments and launch pad, carted away debris, and removed the top layer of coral around the contaminated launch pad. The plutonium-contaminated rubbish was dumped in the lagoon, polluting the surrounding marine environment. Over 550 drums of contaminated material were dumped in the ocean off Johnston from 1964 to 1965. At the time of the Bluegill Prime disaster, a bulldozer and grader scraped
12177-508: The rocket's destruction contributed to the radioactive pollution on the island. Unincorporated territories of the United States Territories of the United States are sub-national administrative divisions overseen by the federal government of the United States . The American territories differ from the U.S. states and Indian reservations as they are not sovereign entities . In contrast, each state has
12300-519: The schooner Palestine specifically to find Johnston Atoll. They located guano on the atoll on March 19, 1858. They proceeded to claim the island as U.S. territory. That same year, S. C. Allen , sailing on the Kalama under a commission from King Kamehameha IV of Hawaiʻi, sailed to Johnston Atoll, removed the American flag, and claimed the atoll for the Kingdom of Hawaii (June 14–19, 1858). Allen named
12423-682: The seaplane base. On January 25, 1957, the Department of Treasury was granted a 5-year permit for the United States Coast Guard (USCG) to operate and maintain a Long Range Aid to Navigation (LORAN) transmitting station on Johnston Atoll. Two years later, in December 1959, the Secretary of Defense approved the Secretary of the Treasury's request to use Sand Island for U.S. Coast Guard LORAN A and C station sites. The USCG
12546-459: The ship was unloading marines, civilians, and stores on the atoll. On December 15, 1941, the atoll was shelled outside the reef by a Japanese submarine, which had been part of the attack on Pearl Harbor eight days earlier. Several buildings, including the power station, were hit, but no personnel were injured. Additional Japanese shelling occurred on December 22 and 23, 1941. On all occasions, Johnston Atoll's coastal artillery returned fire, driving off
12669-400: The size of Sand Island from 10 to 22 acres (4.0 to 8.9 ha), and added the two new islands, North and East, of 25 and 18 acres (10.1 and 7.3 ha) respectively. The four islands compose a total land area of 2.67 square kilometers (1.03 square miles). Due to the atoll's tilt, much of the reef on the southeast portion has subsided. But even though it does not have an encircling reef crest,
12792-497: The states and D.C. (for example, Puerto Rico has a QuickFacts page just like the states and D.C.) Puerto Rico data is collected annually in American Community Survey estimates (just like the states), but data for the other territories is collected only once every ten years. The five major inhabited territories contain the following governments and legislatures: The following is the political party status of
12915-525: The sub. In July 1942, the civilian contractors at the atoll were replaced by 500 men from the 5th and 10th Naval Construction Battalions , who expanded the fuel storage and water production at the base and built additional facilities. The 5th Battalion departed in January 1943. In December 1943, the 99th Naval Construction Battalion arrived at the atoll. It proceeded to lengthen the runway to 6,000 feet (1,800 m) and add 10 acres (4.0 ha) of parking to
13038-490: The territories are underdeveloped. Residents of U.S. territories cannot vote in U.S. presidential elections , and they have only non-voting representation in the U.S. Congress. According to 2012 data, territorial telecommunications and other infrastructure are generally inferior to that of the continental U.S. and Hawaii. Poverty rates are higher in the territories than in the states. Organized territories are lands under federal sovereignty (but not part of any state or
13161-569: The tests were completed, the island reverted to the command of the US Air Force. From 1963 to 1970, the Navy's Joint Task force 8 and the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) held joint operational control of the island during high-altitude nuclear testing operations. In 1970, operational control was handed back to the Air Force until July 1973, when Defense Special Weapons Agency was given host-management responsibility by
13284-405: The top fill around the launch pad. It was then dumped into the lagoon to make a ramp so the rest of the debris could be loaded onto the landing craft to be dumped into the ocean. An estimated 10 percent of the plutonium from the test device was in the fill used to make the ramp. Then, the ramp was covered and placed into a 25 acres (100,000 m) landfill on the island during 1962 dredging to extend
13407-449: The water immediately adjacent . . for the purposes of killing or capturing fish . . lessee will not allow destruction or capturing of birds . . " The lessee soon abandoned the project, however, and on August 9, 1918, the lease was reassigned to a Honolulu-based Japanese fishing company. A sampan carried a work party to the island; they built a wood shed on the SE coast of the larger island and ran
13530-559: The waters surrounding the island, which are designated as a National Wildlife Refuge and part of the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument . The Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge extends from the shore out to 12 nautical miles, continuing as part of the National Wildlife Refuge System out to 200 nautical miles. The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument extends from the shore out to 200 nautical miles. The isolated atoll has been under
13653-531: The western half of the Indian Territory was organized as Oklahoma Territory . The eastern half remained unorganized until 1907, when it was joined with Oklahoma Territory to form the State of Oklahoma . Additionally, the Department of Alaska was unorganized from its acquisition in 1867 from Russia until organized as the District of Alaska in 1884; it was organized as Alaska Territory in 1912. Hawaii
13776-468: Was 92.6% Pacific Islander (including 88.9% Samoan ); Guam's population was 49.3% Pacific Islander (including 37.3% Chamorro ) and 32.2% Asian (including 26.3% Filipino ); the population of the Northern Mariana Islands was 34.9% Pacific Islander and 49.9% Asian; and the population of the U.S. Virgin Islands was 76.0% African American . In 2019, Puerto Rico's population was 98.9% Hispanic or Latino , 67.4% white, and 0.8% non-Hispanic white. Throughout
13899-478: Was added to the seaplane base. On May 26, 1942, a United States Navy Consolidated PBY-5 Catalina wrecked at Johnston Atoll. The Catalina pilot made a normal power landing and immediately applied the throttle for take-off. At about 50 knots, the plane swerved to the left and continued into a violent waterloop. The plane's hull was broken open, and the Catalina sank immediately. After the war, on March 27, 1949,
14022-545: Was also unorganized from the time of its annexation by the U.S. in 1898 until organized as Hawaii Territory in 1900. Regions that have been admitted as states under the United States Constitution in addition to the original thirteen were, most often, prior to admission, territories or parts of territories of this kind. As the United States grew, the most populous parts of the organized territory would achieve statehood. Some territories existed only
14145-414: Was also used as the launch site of 124 sounding rockets going up as high as 1,158 kilometers (720 miles). These carried scientific instruments and telemetry equipment, either in support of the nuclear bomb tests or in experimental antisatellite technology. Eight PGM-17 Thor missiles deployed by the U.S. Air Force (USAF) were launched from Johnston Island in 1962 as part of " Operation Fishbowl ,"
14268-411: Was detonated at a lower altitude than the other tests: "At Johnston Island, there was an intense white flash. Even with high-density goggles, the burst was too bright to view, even for a few seconds. A distinct thermal pulse was felt on bare skin. A yellow-orange disc was formed, and transformed itself into a purple doughnut. A glowing purple cloud was faintly visible for a few minutes." The nuclear yield
14391-469: Was found on nearby Sand Island. " Bluegill Prime ," the second attempt to launch the payload, which failed last time, was scheduled for 23:15 (local) on July 25, 1962. It, too, was a genuine disaster and caused the most severe plutonium contamination on the island. The Thor missile carried one pod, two re-entry vehicles, and the W50 nuclear warhead. The missile engine malfunctioned immediately after ignition, and
14514-507: Was granted permission to install a LORAN A and C station on Sand Island to be staffed by U.S. Coast Guard personnel through June 30, 1992. The permit for a LORAN station to operate on Johnston Island was terminated in 1962. On November 1, 1957, a new United States Coast Guard LORAN-A station was commissioned. By 1958, the Coast Guard LORAN Station at Johnston Island began transmitting on a 24-hour basis, thus establishing
14637-489: Was heavily damaged and contaminated with plutonium. Missile launches and nuclear testing halted until the radioactive debris was dumped, soils were recovered, and the launch emplacement rebuilt. Before tests could resume, three months of repairs, decontamination, and rebuilding of the LE1 and the backup pad LE2 were necessary. To continue with the testing program, U.S. troops were sent in to do a rapid cleanup. The troops scrubbed down
14760-480: Was introduced in 1843 by the French naturalist Charles Lucien Bonaparte . The species is monotypic : no subspecies are recognised. This very long-winged petrel is 25–29 cm (9.8–11.4 in) in length with a 78–90 cm (31–35 in) wingspan. It has mainly brown plumage and a long pointed tail. It has a buoyant twisting flight as it picks planktonic food items from the ocean surface. The species has
14883-478: Was reported in most official documents as "less than 20 kilotons ." One report by the U.S. government reported the yield of the "Tightrope" test as ten kilotons. Seven sounding rockets were launched from Johnston Island in support of the Tightrope test, and this was the final American nuclear atmospheric test. The "Fishbowl" series included four failures, all deliberately disrupted by range safety officers when
15006-474: Was used as an American national nuclear test site for atmospheric and extremely high-altitude nuclear explosions in outer space . In 1958, Johnston Atoll was the location of the two "Hardtack I" nuclear tests firings. One conducted August 1, 1958, was codenamed " Hardtack Teak ", and one conducted August 12, 1958, was codenamed "Orange." Both tests detonated 3.8- megaton hydrogen bombs launched to high altitudes by rockets from Johnston Atoll. Johnston Island
15129-429: Was used commercially by Continental Air Micronesia , touching down between Honolulu and Majuro . When the aircraft landed, soldiers surrounded the aircraft, and passengers were not allowed to leave the aircraft. Aloha Airlines also made weekly scheduled flights to the island carrying civilian and military personnel. In the 1990s, there were flights almost daily. Some days saw up to three arrivals. Just before movement of
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