Misplaced Pages

#111888

68-528: French education during the 19th century was marked by two distinct and segregated systems, the first being a secondary school system and the second a primary school system. However, in each of these systems, the Catholic Church provided an alternative to secular schooling that was often the only option for families in economically depressed regions of France. Although the Republican party

136-466: A high school (abbreviated as HS or H.S. ), can also be called senior high school . In some countries there are two phases to secondary education (ISCED 2) and (ISCED 3), here the junior high school , intermediate school, lower secondary school, or middle school occurs between the primary school (ISCED 1) and high school. Falloux Act The Falloux Laws promoted Catholic schools in France in

204-615: A different education system and priorities. Schools need to accommodate students, staff, storage, mechanical and electrical systems, support staff, ancillary staff and administration. The number of rooms required can be determined from the predicted roll of the school and the area needed. According to standards used in the United Kingdom, a general classroom for 30 students needs to be 55 m , or more generously 62 m . A general art room for 30 students needs to be 83 m , but 104 m for 3D textile work. A drama studio or

272-628: A greater variety of classes, or sponsoring a greater number of extra-curricular activities . (Some of these benefits can also be achieved through smaller but specialized schools, such as a dedicated special school for students with disabilities or a magnet school for students with a particular subject-matter interest.) In terms of structure, organization, and relationships, larger schools tend to be more hierarchical and bureaucratic , with fewer and weaker personal connections and more rigidly defined, unvarying roles for all staff. Teachers find that large schools result in more information to process in

340-467: A guaranteed minimum wage. Any town could transfer its public collège to the Catholic system. All schools were inspected by government officials and the state alone had the right to award the baccalauréat. The law worked as intended to increase the Catholic role. The growth in Catholic schools 1854 to 1867 was 75 percent, as opposed to 34 percent for the secondary school system as a whole. The Falloux Law

408-807: A national system of education that would provide every citizen with basic primary education . With the intention of strengthening France's politics and armed forces, a growing concentration on higher education was later seen after the Revolution, notably from Napoleon I in his establishment of the Imperial University in 1804-8. Meanwhile, the Catholic Church still remained highly involved within primary education. The Guizot Act passed in 1833 obliged all communes to open boys’ schools. The Falloux Act of 15 March 1850 abolished teacher training programs for men which had been put in place by

476-633: A proposition by the moderate Republican Pascal Duprat . This parallel Commission was presided by the Minister of Public Instruction de Vaulabelle and had as secretary the Republican Jules Simon . Parliamentary debates focused on Article 9 of the new Constitution concerning education. Catholic deputy Charles de Montalembert then described the University's monopoly in the education system as "intellectual communism" and claimed

544-524: A register of attendance that notes, for each class, the absences of the students. At the end of each month, they will address to the mayor and the primary inspector a copy of the register, indicating the number of absences and reasons. The reasons for absence will be submitted to the school board. The only known legitimate reasons are: child's illness, death of a family member, incapacity resulting from accidental difficulty of communications. The exceptional circumstances invoked will be taken into consideration by

612-538: A religious education outside from school buildings. Religious education is optional in private schools. This article discusses further annulment of portions of the Falloux Act regarding religious authority. The measures of sections 18 and 44 of the Act of 15 March 1850 are repealed, in that they gave ministers of religion a right of inspection, supervision and management in public and private elementary schools and in

680-422: A secondary school may have a canteen, serving a set of foods to students, and storage where the equipment of a school is kept. Government accountants having read the advice then publish minimum guidelines on schools. These enable environmental modelling and establishing building costs. Future design plans are audited to ensure that these standards are met but not exceeded. Government ministries continue to press for

748-561: A single basketball court could serve a school with 200 students just as well as a school with 500 students, so construction and maintenance costs, on a per-student basis, can be lower for larger schools. However, cost savings from larger schools have generally not materialized, as larger schools require more administrative support staff, and rural areas see the potential savings offset by increased transportation costs. Larger schools can also support more specialization, such as splitting students into advanced, average, and basic tracks , offering

SECTION 10

#1732772570112

816-417: A specialist science laboratory for 30 needs to be 90 m . Examples are given on how this can be configured for a 1,200 place secondary (practical specialism). and 1,850 place secondary school. The ideal size for a typical comprehensive high school is large enough to offer a variety of classes, but small enough that students develop a sense of community. Research has suggested that academic achievement

884-550: Is best when there are about 150 to 250 students in each grade level, and that above a total school size of 2,000 for a secondary school, academic achievement and the sense of school community decline substantially. Arguments in favor of smaller schools include having a shared experience of school (e.g., everyone takes the same classes, because the school is too small to offer alternatives), higher average academic achievement, and lower inequality . Arguments in favor of larger schools tend to focus on economy of scale . For example,

952-537: Is chaired, in Paris, by the mayor, in Lyon, by assistants; it is composed of one delegate appointed by the cantonal inspector of schools, with members appointed by the council, numbering three to seven by each district. The term of office of members of the school board, appointed by the council under the second paragraph, lasts until the election of a new municipal council. Their terms will always renewable. The primary inspector

1020-443: Is compulsory for children of both sexes between the ages of six to thirteen years and may be given either in institutions of primary or secondary schools, in public or free schools, or in the home, by the father himself or anyone he chooses. A regulation will determine the means of ensuring primary education for deaf, mute, and blind. This article explains the formation of school boards, national representation in Paris and Lyon, and

1088-444: Is established in each commune to monitor and encourage school attendance. It consists of the mayor, president; a cantonal delegate and, in common with several townships, as many delegates as there are townships, designated by the school inspector; with members appointed by the department council in equal numbers, at most, to one third of the members of this council. In Paris and Lyon, there is a school board for each municipal district. It

1156-452: Is ex officio member of all school boards established within his jurisdiction. This article discusses the graduation of students after they have completed the appropriate amount of primary education, determined by a public examination. There shall be established a certificate of primary studies; it is awarded after a public examination which may be presented to children beginning from the age of eleven. Those who, from that age, have obtained

1224-518: Is often credited for inventing the concept of free primary school, it was, in fact, a series of progressive improvements since mid-century. For example, in 1698, it was decreed that children ages 7–14 were to attend local Catholic schools with certified instructors, which were also added to areas that previously had none. However, funds for these schools were to be provided by local residents, and it proved very difficult for these schools to afford to remain in practice. Overall, between 1837 (44 years before

1292-541: The Ancien Régime . The Bourbon Restoration had in part satisfied these wants, by tolerating teaching by religious congregations, although it still theoretically remained prohibited, and had also granted more weight to bishops in the education system, enabling schooling programs to give more attention to Catholicism. However, the July Monarchy was much less friendly to this reactionary trend. Although

1360-554: The Guizot Law of 1833 partially satisfied Catholics by authorising private teaching in primary education, it kept secondary and higher education under the University's supervision. Guizot also generalised the écoles normales primaires , which were responsible for the training of teachers. First created by the National Convention in 1794, these schools, related to the écoles normales supérieures , were organised on

1428-532: The ISCED 2014 education scale, levels 2 and 3 correspond to secondary education which are as follows: Within the English-speaking world, there are three widely used systems to describe the age of the child. The first is the 'equivalent ages'; then countries that base their education systems on the 'English model' use one of two methods to identify the year group, while countries that base their systems on

SECTION 20

#1732772570112

1496-631: The ISCED scale, but these can also be provided in separate schools. There may be other variations in the provision: for example, children in Australia, Hong Kong, and Spain change from the primary to secondary systems a year later at the age of 12, with the ISCED's first year of lower secondary being the last year of primary provision. In the United States , most local secondary education systems have separate middle schools and high schools . In

1564-789: The Liberation , the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF) did not repeal the teaching authorisation given to congregations. The Debré Law of 1959 went further, by having private schools' teachers paid by the state. Although the Falloux Laws have formally been repealed since the promulgation of the Education Code in 2000, several of their dispositions have been retained in the Code, and form

1632-612: The United Kingdom , most state schools and privately funded schools accommodate pupils between the ages of 11 and 16 or between 11 and 18; some UK private schools, i.e. public schools , admit pupils between the ages of 13 and 18. Secondary schools follow on from primary schools and prepare for vocational or tertiary education . In high and middle income countries, attendance is usually compulsory for students at least until age 16. The organisations, buildings, and terminology are more or less unique in each country. In

1700-521: The 'American K–12 model' refer to their year groups as 'grades'. The Irish model is structured similarly to the English model, but differs significantly in terms of labels. This terminology extends into the research literature. Below is a comparison of some countries: Schools exist within a strict legal framework where they may be answerable to their government through local authorities and their stakeholders. In England (but necessarily in other parts of

1768-409: The 'minimum' space and cost standards to be reduced. The UK government published this downwardly revised space formula in 2014. It said the floor area should be 1050 m (+ 350 m if there is a sixth form) + 6.3 m /pupil place for 11- to 16-year-olds + 7 m /pupil place for post-16s. The external finishes were to be downgraded to meet a build cost of £1113/m . A secondary school locally may be called

1836-718: The 1850s, 1860s and 1870s. They were voted in during the French Second Republic and promulgated on 15 March 1850 and in 1851, following the presidential election of Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte as president in December 1848 and the May 1849 legislative elections that gave a majority to the conservative Parti de l'Ordre . Named for the Minister of Education Alfred de Falloux , they mainly aimed at promoting Catholic teaching. The Falloux Law of 15 March 1850 also extended

1904-599: The Falloux Laws was to replace the revolutionary and imperial system, which had placed the whole of the education system under the supervision of the University and of state-trained teachers, who were accused of spreading Republicans and anti-clerical ideas, by a system giving responsibility for education back to the clergy. This aim was largely achieved: the Falloux Law created a mixed system, public (and mostly secular) on one hand, and private and Catholic on

1972-510: The Guizot Law. These laws created a mixed system in which some primary education establishments were public and controlled by the state and others were under the supervision of Catholic congregations. Although the concept of universal public schooling was important to these revolutionaries, it became clear that financial issues and political debate thwarted the implementation. Despite the differences on economic, social, and other issues among

2040-566: The Institute, and three members representing "free" (i.e. private) teaching establishments. Similarly, bishops were included in the academic councils. Primary and secondary education were divided between state establishments, and private establishments, headed by non-profit organisations or religious congregations. Supervision of schools was the joint responsibility of the mayor and the priest. The law more strictly regulated teacher training colleges (écoles normales) and teachers were provided with

2108-566: The Jules Ferry Laws were passed) and 1906, the number of schools had increased by more than 100%. In some areas, like Bretagne Ouest, it reached nearly 200% (197.2%). The idea of national government support for popular education and teacher training first became apparent as an important social and political issue during the French Revolution of 1789 . Prominent politicians, such as Talleyrand and Condorcet , each proposed

Jules Ferry laws - Misplaced Pages Continue

2176-523: The Minister Falloux himself, it had as vice-president Adolphe Thiers , and included Catholics such as the archbishop of Paris Mgr Sibour , the abbot Dupanloup (who later became bishop of Orléans ), etc. Surprisingly, Thiers, formerly a critic of the Church's involvement in education, was one of those who most supported Catholics' influence in the education system, being ready to hand over to

2244-619: The Republican radicals with whom Jules Ferry identified, they were united by the desire to obtain a secular republic due to the growing popularity of anti-clericalism since the Revolution and notably during the Third Republic . In the wake of the Industrial Revolution and its new practices of employment and work days, the radicals also "hoped that schooling would make workers as reasonable and self-satisfied as it

2312-743: The United Kingdom) there are six general types of state-funded schools running in parallel to the private sector. The state takes an interest in safeguarding issues in all schools. All state-funded schools in England are legally required to have a website where they must publish details of their governance, finance, curriculum intent and staff and pupil protection policies to comply with The School Information (England) (Amendment) Regulations 2012 and 2016 . Ofsted monitors these. School building design does not happen in isolation. The building or school campus needs to accommodate: Each country will have

2380-524: The University and thus strengthening the notables' local influence. It reorganised the Superior Council of Education and academic councils, specifically by giving a large number of places to representatives of various religions, above all of Roman Catholicism. Eight University members had seats at the Superior Council of Public Instruction, alongside seven religious representatives (including four Catholics), three state counsellors , three members of

2448-423: The anti-clerical Ferry laws in the early 1880s established free and secular education in the Third Republic . The Falloux laws provided universal primary schooling in France and expanded opportunities for secondary schooling. In practice, the curricula in Catholic and state schools were similar. Catholic schools were especially useful in schooling for girls, which had long been neglected. The main objectives of

2516-503: The basis of the 1808 decree organising the University of France, and were accused by conservatives of promoting Republicanism, Socialism and anti-clericalism. After the 1848 Revolution , Lazare Hippolyte Carnot was named Minister of Public Instruction and prepared a draft reform. He named the Republican Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire president of the parliamentary commission which would write

2584-407: The certificate of primary studies, will be exempt from remaining compulsory school time. This article discusses the compulsory requirements of the parents or guardians of each child in procuring an education, whether private or public. The father, guardian, person having custody of the child, the boss with whom the child is placed, shall, at least fifteen days before the time classes begin, advise

2652-456: The clergy the whole of the primary education establishments, whilst bishop Dupanloup and others strong Catholics calmed his excessive claims. Upset by this measure, in part because the December 1848 decree had given the initiative for the legislative process, concerning organic laws, to the Assembly, the latter nominated a new parliamentary Commission to re-establish its prerogatives following

2720-457: The communes and departments had the responsibility to subsidize it. Additionally, the laws protected the wages of teachers by mandating that "salaries... may never under any circumstances become inferior to the salaries they have enjoyed during the three years preceding the application of the present law..." (Art. 6). This article outlines what is to be included in a free, mandatory, and laic education system. The Act of 15 March 1850 referred to at

2788-436: The directors of public and private schools the list of children who will attend their schools. A duplicate of these lists is sent by him to the primary inspector. This article discusses the procedures for changing schools and/or the manner in which education is received. When a child leaves school, parents or persons responsible must immediately give notice to the mayor and indicate how the child will receive instruction in

Jules Ferry laws - Misplaced Pages Continue

2856-599: The draft bill to the Assembly). Falloux also managed to bypass the Conseil d'Etat 's examination of the law, the latter being composed of several Republicans. In September 1849, Falloux fell sick, and was replaced in October as Minister of Public Instruction by Félix Esquirou de Parieu . On 11 January 1850, a minor law (named Parieu Law) was passed, simplifying procedures of suspension and revocation of teachers. The draft

2924-518: The draft. The latter would have made education mandatory for children of both sexes, as well as a three years of training for teachers, subsidised by the state. Although it favoured public schools, it still allowed private teaching establishments. Carnot's draft was however set aside after his resignation on 5 July 1848. Thus, parliamentary debates were resumed. The newly elected President Louis Napoléon Bonaparte replaced Carnot with Alfred de Falloux as Minister of Public Instruction in December 1848,

2992-442: The education has to fulfill the needs of: students, teachers, non-teaching support staff, administrators and the community. It has to meet general government building guidelines, health requirements, minimal functional requirements for classrooms, toilets and showers, electricity and services, preparation and storage of textbooks and basic teaching aids. An optimum secondary school will meet the minimum conditions and will have: Also,

3060-466: The end of the article, is the Falloux Act . Primary education includes: The moral and civic education; Reading and writing; The language and elements of French literature; Geography, particularly that of France; History, particularly that of France to the present; Basic lessons on law and political economy; The elements of the natural sciences and mathematics, and their applications to agriculture, hygiene, industrial arts, handicrafts and use

3128-632: The first and second section of the Falloux Law. In 1904, among increasing voices to repeal entirely the Falloux Law, the Minister Emile Combes prohibited religious congregations from teaching, including in private schools. However, Catholics responded by creating "lay private schools", where religious education was maintained, although teaching was done by lay people, and not clergy. The Vichy Regime allowed again religious congregations to teach and strongly subsided private Catholic schools. Although these subsidies were interrupted following

3196-441: The forefront of French schooling and society, describing his program in his Memoirs : "God in education. The Pope at the head of the Church. The Church at the head of civilisation." Having dissolved Carnot's commission, Falloux created two new ministerial commissions, dedicated to preparing the draft laws for primary and secondary education, which quickly merged. Both were composed by a majority of conservative Catholics. Presided by

3264-408: The future. The school inspector invites those responsible for the child to comply with the law and makes them aware of the provisions of Article 12 below. This article outlines policy regarding school absences. When a child misses school temporarily, parents or persons responsible should inform the director or the directress the reasons for this absence. The directors and directresses must keep

3332-403: The kindergartens ( salle d’asile ), as well as paragraph 2 of Article 31 of the Act, which gives consistories the right to present teacher candidates belonging to non-Catholic faiths. This article makes compulsory primary education and lays down the requirements of age and manner of instruction (whether they will be schooled in the home or at a public or private institution). Primary education

3400-410: The larger environment (e.g., announcements about 100 programs instead of just 10) and that as individuals they form fewer relationships with teachers outside of their primary subject area. Smaller schools have less social isolation and more engagement. These effects cannot be entirely overcome through implementation of a house system or " school within a school " programs. The building providing

3468-407: The larger population. In Ferry's view, schools would educate on political doctrine and the virtues of nationalism, emphasizing independent thought. Members of Catholic orders were not allowed to teach in public schools after a five-year transitional period. On 16 June 1881 the first set of Jules Ferry Laws were passed, making primary education free for both boys and girls. To finance of the project,

SECTION 50

#1732772570112

3536-667: The latter remaining in Odilon Barrot 's government until May 1849. The decree of 11 December 1848 made the upcoming law on education an organic law , which should thus be reserved to the Constituent Assembly's initiative. A Legitimist (i.e. a conservative Royalist), Falloux officially withdrew Carnot's draft bill on 4 January 1849 and dissolved the Scientific and Literary Study Commission named by Carnot. Falloux clearly aimed at restoring Roman Catholicism to

3604-419: The latter would be determined by forthcoming laws. On 5 February 1849, Jules Simon presented to the Assembly the draft law, composed of 23 articles. However, Odilon Barrot's government claimed that the Constituent Assembly's mandate was coming to an end, and that further proposed laws would have to be examined by the succeeding National Assembly. Pressed for time, the Constituent Assembly thus decided to examine

3672-427: The list of all children aged between six and thirteen years and is to notify those persons who are responsible for these children at the time classes begin. Failure to register, fifteen days before the beginning of school, on the part of parents and other responsible persons, allows him to automatically register the child in a public school and notify the person responsible. Eight days before classes begin, he gives to

3740-421: The mayor of the town if the child is to be given education in the family or in a public or private school; in the latter two cases, he will indicate the chosen school. The families living near to two or more public schools have the option to enroll their children in either of these schools, whether within or outside the territory of their commune, unless they already have the maximum number of students permitted by

3808-467: The most pressing laws. Deputy Boubée , a scientist and University lecturer, proposed that the draft education law be one of those scrutinised, but his motion was rejected by 458 votes against 307. Discussion of the new law would thus have to wait the May 1849 legislative election . But these ones gave an absolute majority to the conservative Parti de l'Ordre , mainly composed of Catholic monarchists, whether Orleanists or Legitimists, such as Falloux who

3876-417: The other. This law allowed the clergy and members of ecclesiastical orders, male and female, to teach without any further qualifications. This exemption was extended even to priests who taught in secondary schools, where a university degree was demanded from lay teachers. The primary schools were put under the management of the curés . The Falloux Law created one academy for each department , decentralising

3944-411: The regulations. In case of dispute, and by request of either the mayor or the parents, the department council rules as the last resort. This article discusses further requirements of the parents or guardians in maintaining their child’s attendance, regulated by the student records kept by the municipal school boards. Each year the mayor shall prepare, in consultation with the municipal school board,

4012-466: The requirements of the Guizot Law of 1833, which had mandated a boys' school in each commune of more than 500 inhabitants, to require a girls' school in those communes. The 1851 law created a mixed system, in which some primary education establishments were public and controlled by the state and others were under the supervision of Catholic congregations (teaching orders) . The new law created an association between Church and state that lasted until

4080-412: The school board. This article discusses penalties against a school director in the failure to abide by the preceding article. Secondary school A secondary school or high school is an institution that provides secondary education . Some secondary schools provide both lower secondary education (ages 11 to 14) and upper secondary education (ages 14 to 18), i.e., both levels 2 and 3 of

4148-466: The system was "inferior to that of the Ancien Régime". Article 9 proclaimed that "education is free" (" L'enseignement est libre ")" while adding that this "freedom of education" was determined by legislation and exercised "under state supervision." While authorising private establishments, this article thus ensured that education in general was placed under the watch of the state. The extent of

SECTION 60

#1732772570112

4216-487: The terms of office of the members. A stratification of responsibility begins to take shape: first, parents were to have the primary responsibility over the education of their children. Mayors, then, as presidents of the local school boards, were to oversee that parents followed through with this responsibility. To oversee the school board, therefore, was the central government (see Article 7 below). This now removes church officials from these positions. A municipal school board

4284-457: The tools of the principal occupations; The elements of drawing, modeling and music; Gymnastics; For boys, military exercises; For girls, needlework. Article 23 of the Act of 15 March 1850 is repealed. This article regulates the option of a religious education, which differs between public and private institutions. The public primary schools will hold one day free, apart from Sunday, allowing parents to give, if they wish, their children

4352-644: The upper-hand. It included Salomon (from the Meuse ), the Protestant theologian Coquerel , Baze, the theologian Armand de Melun (who had been a collaborator of late Denys Affre , former archbishop of Paris), de l'Espinay , Sauvaire-Barthélemy (a grandnephew of the marquis de Barthélémy ), Dufougeray, Barthélémy Saint-Hilaire , de Montalembert , Rouher , Thiers , Beugnot, Fresneau, Janvier, Parisis (bishop of Langres ). The Commission chose Thiers as president and Beugnot as " rapporteur " (in charge of presenting

4420-415: Was credited with making the bourgeoisie." The 1698 attempt would not have held sway with the Republican radicals of Ferry's generation, who would have seen it as Catholic propaganda and as a defense against the growing popularity of Protestantism . Likewise, Napoleon's Imperial University remained connected to the Church and paid little heed to primary education that would ensure basic literacy needs among

4488-563: Was discussed again starting on 14 January 1850. During these debates, Victor Hugo , although member of the Parti de l'Ordre, criticised the renewed influence of the clergy. The law was finally adopted on 15 March 1850, by 399 votes against 237. The Third Republic abrogated or reformed most dispositions of the Falloux Laws. The 27 February 1880 law reduced the clergy's representation in educational councils. The Ferry Laws established mandatory, free and laic education. The Goblet Law abrogated

4556-676: Was elected deputy. Despite having been dissolved, the Commission presided by Barthélémy Saint-Hilaire and named by Carnot submitted its draft and report to the Assembly on 10 April 1849. This work was ignored during further discussions. On 18 June 1849, Falloux submitted to the Assembly the draft bill elaborated by the ministerial commission which he had himself named. Falloux thus resumed his plans: "Instruction has remained too much isolated from education; education has remained too much isolated from religion." The Assembly hereby named another parliamentary commission, where Catholics had again

4624-559: Was promulgated in a context in which French Catholics were worried about the increasing role of the state in education since the Revolution of 1789 and the reorganisation of the imperial University . They thought that the imperial education system, inherited from the First Empire 's reforms, excessively diffused Enlightenment , republican and socialist ideas. Thus, they wanted the education system to return to its basis during

#111888