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138-408: The word observable in this sense does not refer to the capability of modern technology to detect light or other information from an object, or whether there is anything to be detected. It refers to the physical limit created by the speed of light itself. No signal can travel faster than light, hence there is a maximum distance, called the particle horizon , beyond which nothing can be detected, as

276-416: A {\displaystyle c^{2}/a} , where a is the constant proper acceleration of the particle. While approximations of this type of situation can occur in the real world (in particle accelerators , for example), a true event horizon is never present, as this requires the particle to be accelerated indefinitely (requiring arbitrarily large amounts of energy and an arbitrarily large apparatus). In

414-404: A "pulse theory" and compared the spreading of light to that of waves in water in his 1665 work Micrographia ("Observation IX"). In 1672 Hooke suggested that light's vibrations could be perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) worked out a mathematical wave theory of light in 1678 and published it in his Treatise on Light in 1690. He proposed that light

552-609: A better representation of how "bright" a light appears to be than raw intensity. They relate to raw power by a quantity called luminous efficacy and are used for purposes like determining how to best achieve sufficient illumination for various tasks in indoor and outdoor settings. The illumination measured by a photocell sensor does not necessarily correspond to what is perceived by the human eye and without filters which may be costly, photocells and charge-coupled devices (CCD) tend to respond to some infrared , ultraviolet or both. Light exerts physical pressure on objects in its path,

690-556: A body could be so massive that light could not escape from it. In other words, it would become what is now called a black hole . Laplace withdrew his suggestion later, after a wave theory of light became firmly established as the model for light (as has been explained, neither a particle or wave theory is fully correct). A translation of Newton's essay on light appears in The large scale structure of space-time , by Stephen Hawking and George F. R. Ellis . The fact that light could be polarized

828-500: A concentration of mass equivalent to tens of thousands of galaxies. The Great Attractor, discovered in 1986, lies at a distance of between 150 million and 250 million light-years in the direction of the Hydra and Centaurus constellations . In its vicinity there is a preponderance of large old galaxies, many of which are colliding with their neighbours, or radiating large amounts of radio waves. In 1987, astronomer R. Brent Tully of

966-522: A cosmological model with an event horizon is a universe dominated by the cosmological constant (a de Sitter universe ). A calculation of the speeds of the cosmological event and particle horizons was given in a paper on the FLRW cosmological model, approximating the Universe as composed of non-interacting constituents, each one being a perfect fluid . If a particle is moving at a constant velocity in

1104-467: A force of about 3.3 piconewtons on the object being illuminated; thus, one could lift a U.S. penny with laser pointers, but doing so would require about 30 billion 1-mW laser pointers.   However, in nanometre -scale applications such as nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS), the effect of light pressure is more significant and exploiting light pressure to drive NEMS mechanisms and to flip nanometre-scale physical switches in integrated circuits

1242-476: A higher-dimensional analogue of the 2D surface of a sphere that is finite in area but has no edge. It is plausible that the galaxies within the observable universe represent only a minuscule fraction of the galaxies in the universe. According to the theory of cosmic inflation initially introduced by Alan Guth and D. Kazanas , if it is assumed that inflation began about 10 seconds after the Big Bang and that

1380-411: A lasting molecular change (a change in conformation) in the visual molecule retinal in the human retina, which change triggers the sensation of vision. There exist animals that are sensitive to various types of infrared, but not by means of quantum-absorption. Infrared sensing in snakes depends on a kind of natural thermal imaging , in which tiny packets of cellular water are raised in temperature by

1518-490: A location where it appeared to be. In the case of a horizon perceived by an occupant of a de Sitter universe , the horizon always appears to be a fixed distance away for a non-accelerating observer. It is never contacted, even by an accelerating observer. One of the best-known examples of an event horizon derives from general relativity's description of a black hole, a celestial object so dense that no nearby matter or radiation can escape its gravitational field . Often, this

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1656-450: A medium faster than the speed of light in that medium can produce visible Cherenkov radiation . Certain chemicals produce visible radiation by chemoluminescence . In living things, this process is called bioluminescence . For example, fireflies produce light by this means and boats moving through water can disturb plankton which produce a glowing wake. Certain substances produce light when they are illuminated by more energetic radiation,

1794-414: A non-expanding universe free of gravitational fields, any event that occurs in that Universe will eventually be observable by the particle, because the forward light cones from these events intersect the particle's world line. On the other hand, if the particle is accelerating, in some situations light cones from some events never intersect the particle's world line. Under these conditions, an apparent horizon

1932-489: A particle horizon for the universe exists is as follows. Define a comoving distance d p as In this equation, a is the scale factor , c is the speed of light, and t 0 is the age of the Universe. If d p → ∞ (i.e., points arbitrarily as far away as can be observed), then no event horizon exists. If d p ≠ ∞ , a horizon is present. Examples of cosmological models without an event horizon are universes dominated by matter or by radiation . An example of

2070-488: A phenomenon that has been referred to as the End of Greatness . The organization of structure arguably begins at the stellar level, though most cosmologists rarely address astrophysics on that scale. Stars are organized into galaxies , which in turn form galaxy groups , galaxy clusters , superclusters , sheets, walls and filaments , which are separated by immense voids , creating a vast foam-like structure sometimes called

2208-424: A phenomenon which can be deduced by Maxwell's equations , but can be more easily explained by the particle nature of light: photons strike and transfer their momentum. Light pressure is equal to the power of the light beam divided by c , the speed of light.   Due to the magnitude of c , the effect of light pressure is negligible for everyday objects.   For example, a one-milliwatt laser pointer exerts

2346-406: A point where the second observer can observe it. Assuming that the possible apparent horizon is far inside the event horizon, or there is none, observers crossing a black hole event horizon would not actually see or feel anything special happen at that moment. In terms of visual appearance, observers who fall into the hole perceive the eventual apparent horizon as a black impermeable area enclosing

2484-419: A process known as fluorescence . Some substances emit light slowly after excitation by more energetic radiation. This is known as phosphorescence . Phosphorescent materials can also be excited by bombarding them with subatomic particles. Cathodoluminescence is one example. This mechanism is used in cathode-ray tube television sets and computer monitors . Certain other mechanisms can produce light: When

2622-410: A source. One of Newton's arguments against the wave nature of light was that waves were known to bend around obstacles, while light travelled only in straight lines. He did, however, explain the phenomenon of the diffraction of light (which had been observed by Francesco Grimaldi ) by allowing that a light particle could create a localised wave in the aether . Newton's theory could be used to predict

2760-633: A star to collapse beyond these pressures is the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit , which is approximately three solar masses. According to the fundamental gravitational collapse models, an event horizon forms before the singularity of a black hole. If all the stars in the Milky Way would gradually aggregate towards the galactic center while keeping their proportionate distances from each other, they will all fall within their joint Schwarzschild radius long before they are forced to collide. Up to

2898-414: A surface between one transparent material and another. It is described by Snell's Law : where θ 1 is the angle between the ray and the surface normal in the first medium, θ 2 is the angle between the ray and the surface normal in the second medium and n 1 and n 2 are the indices of refraction , n = 1 in a vacuum and n > 1 in a transparent substance . When a beam of light crosses

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3036-557: A value of 298 000 000  m/s in 1862. Albert A. Michelson conducted experiments on the speed of light from 1877 until his death in 1931. He refined Foucault's methods in 1926 using improved rotating mirrors to measure the time it took light to make a round trip from Mount Wilson to Mount San Antonio in California. The precise measurements yielded a speed of 299 796 000  m/s . The effective velocity of light in various transparent substances containing ordinary matter ,

3174-549: Is 4.8% of the total critical density or 4.08 × 10 kg/m . To convert this density to mass we must multiply by volume, a value based on the radius of the "observable universe". Since the universe has been expanding for 13.8 billion years, the comoving distance (radius) is now about 46.6 billion light-years. Thus, volume ( ⁠ 4 / 3 ⁠ πr ) equals 3.58 × 10 m and the mass of ordinary matter equals density ( 4.08 × 10 kg/m ) times volume ( 3.58 × 10 m ) or 1.46 × 10 kg . Sky surveys and mappings of

3312-433: Is a hyperbola , which asymptotically approaches a 45-degree line (the path of a light ray). An event whose light cone's edge is this asymptote or is farther away than this asymptote can never be observed by the accelerating particle. In the particle's reference frame, there is a boundary behind it from which no signals can escape (an apparent horizon). The distance to this boundary is given by c 2 /

3450-474: Is a boundary beyond which events cannot affect an observer. Wolfgang Rindler coined the term in the 1950s. In 1784, John Michell proposed that gravity can be strong enough in the vicinity of massive compact objects that even light cannot escape. At that time, the Newtonian theory of gravitation and the so-called corpuscular theory of light were dominant. In these theories, if the escape velocity of

3588-432: Is a real event horizon because it affects all kinds of signals, including gravitational waves , which travel at the speed of light. More specific horizon types include the related but distinct absolute and apparent horizons found around a black hole. Other distinct types include: In cosmology , the event horizon of the observable universe is the largest comoving distance from which light emitted now can ever reach

3726-530: Is also affected by the colour spectrum of light, a process known as photomorphogenesis . The speed of light in vacuum is defined to be exactly 299 792 458  m/s (approximately 186,282 miles per second). The fixed value of the speed of light in SI units results from the fact that the metre is now defined in terms of the speed of light. All forms of electromagnetic radiation move at exactly this same speed in vacuum. Different physicists have attempted to measure

3864-519: Is also the density for which the expansion of the universe is poised between continued expansion and collapse. From the Friedmann equations , the value for ρ c {\displaystyle \rho _{\text{c}}} critical density, is: where G is the gravitational constant and H = H 0 is the present value of the Hubble constant . The value for H 0 , as given by

4002-459: Is an active area of research. At larger scales, light pressure can cause asteroids to spin faster, acting on their irregular shapes as on the vanes of a windmill .   The possibility of making solar sails that would accelerate spaceships in space is also under investigation. Although the motion of the Crookes radiometer was originally attributed to light pressure, this interpretation

4140-420: Is apparent. The superclusters and filaments seen in smaller surveys are randomized to the extent that the smooth distribution of the universe is visually apparent. It was not until the redshift surveys of the 1990s were completed that this scale could accurately be observed. Another indicator of large-scale structure is the ' Lyman-alpha forest '. This is a collection of absorption lines that appear in

4278-429: Is caused by the surface roughness of the reflecting surfaces, and internal scatterance is caused by the difference of refractive index between the particles and medium inside the object. Like transparent objects, translucent objects allow light to transmit through, but translucent objects also scatter certain wavelength of light via internal scatterance. Refraction is the bending of light rays when passing through

Observable universe - Misplaced Pages Continue

4416-411: Is decreasing with time, there can be cases where a galaxy that is receding from Earth only slightly faster than light emits a signal that eventually reaches Earth. This future visibility limit is calculated at a comoving distance of 19 billion parsecs (62 billion light-years), assuming the universe will keep expanding forever, which implies the number of galaxies that can ever be theoretically observed in

4554-468: Is defined to lie within the "observable universe" if we can receive signals emitted by the galaxy at any age in its history, say, a signal sent from the galaxy only 500 million years after the Big Bang. Because of the universe's expansion, there may be some later age at which a signal sent from the same galaxy can never reach the Earth at any point in the infinite future, so, for example, we might never see what

4692-412: Is described as the boundary within which the black hole's escape velocity is greater than the speed of light . However, a more detailed description is that within this horizon, all lightlike paths (paths that light could take) (and hence all paths in the forward light cones of particles within the horizon) are warped so as to fall farther into the hole. Once a particle is inside the horizon, moving into

4830-411: Is exactly equal to the reachable limit (16 billion light-years) added to the current visibility limit (46 billion light-years). Both popular and professional research articles in cosmology often use the term "universe" to mean "observable universe". This can be justified on the grounds that we can never know anything by direct observation about any part of the universe that is causally disconnected from

4968-443: Is forced out along the axis of spin of the black hole, creating visible jets when these streams interact with matter such as interstellar gas or when they happen to be aimed directly at Earth). Furthermore, a distant observer will never actually see something reach the horizon. Instead, while approaching the hole, the object will seem to go ever more slowly, while any light it emits will be further and further redshifted. Topologically,

5106-488: Is found to be incomplete and controversial. When the conditions under which local event horizons occur are modeled using a more comprehensive picture of the way the Universe works, that includes both relativity and quantum mechanics , local event horizons are expected to have properties that are different from those predicted using general relativity alone. At present, it is expected by the Hawking radiation mechanism that

5244-462: Is incorrect; the characteristic Crookes rotation is the result of a partial vacuum. This should not be confused with the Nichols radiometer , in which the (slight) motion caused by torque (though not enough for full rotation against friction) is directly caused by light pressure. As a consequence of light pressure, Einstein in 1909 predicted the existence of "radiation friction" which would oppose

5382-654: Is less than in vacuum. For example, the speed of light in water is about 3/4 of that in vacuum. Two independent teams of physicists were said to bring light to a "complete standstill" by passing it through a Bose–Einstein condensate of the element rubidium , one team at Harvard University and the Rowland Institute for Science in Cambridge, Massachusetts and the other at the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics , also in Cambridge. However,

5520-514: Is no experiment and/or measurement that can be performed within a finite-size region of spacetime and within a finite time interval that answers the question of whether or not an event horizon exists. Because of the purely theoretical nature of the event horizon, the traveling object does not necessarily experience strange effects and does, in fact, pass through the calculated boundary in a finite amount of its proper time . A misconception concerning event horizons, especially black hole event horizons,

5658-409: Is one of the fundamental constants of nature. Like all types of electromagnetic radiation, visible light propagates by massless elementary particles called photons that represents the quanta of electromagnetic field, and can be analyzed as both waves and particles . The study of light, known as optics , is an important research area in modern physics . The main source of natural light on Earth

Observable universe - Misplaced Pages Continue

5796-428: Is present in the particle's (accelerating) reference frame, representing a boundary beyond which events are unobservable. For example, this occurs with a uniformly accelerated particle. A spacetime diagram of this situation is shown in the figure to the right. As the particle accelerates, it approaches, but never reaches, the speed of light with respect to its original reference frame. On the spacetime diagram, its path

5934-618: Is proportional to its mass. Theoretically, any amount of matter will become a black hole if compressed into a space that fits within its corresponding Schwarzschild radius. For the mass of the Sun , this radius is approximately 3 kilometers (1.9 miles); for Earth , it is about 9 millimeters (0.35 inches). In practice, however, neither Earth nor the Sun have the necessary mass (and, therefore, the necessary gravitational force) to overcome electron and neutron degeneracy pressure . The minimal mass required for

6072-449: Is regarded as the start of modern physical optics. Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655), an atomist, proposed a particle theory of light which was published posthumously in the 1660s. Isaac Newton studied Gassendi's work at an early age and preferred his view to Descartes's theory of the plenum . He stated in his Hypothesis of Light of 1675 that light was composed of corpuscles (particles of matter) which were emitted in all directions from

6210-475: Is required in describing structures on a cosmic scale because they are often different from how they appear. Gravitational lensing can make an image appear to originate in a different direction from its real source, when foreground objects curve surrounding spacetime (as predicted by general relativity ) and deflect passing light rays. Rather usefully, strong gravitational lensing can sometimes magnify distant galaxies, making them easier to detect. Weak lensing by

6348-400: Is that they represent an immutable surface that destroys objects that approach them. In practice, all event horizons appear to be some distance away from any observer, and objects sent towards an event horizon never appear to cross it from the sending observer's point of view (as the horizon-crossing event's light cone never intersects the observer's world line). Attempting to make an object near

6486-777: Is the Sun . Historically, another important source of light for humans has been fire , from ancient campfires to modern kerosene lamps . With the development of electric lights and power systems , electric lighting has effectively replaced firelight. Generally, electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is classified by wavelength into radio waves , microwaves , infrared , the visible spectrum that we perceive as light, ultraviolet , X-rays and gamma rays . The designation " radiation " excludes static electric , magnetic and near fields . The behavior of EMR depends on its wavelength. Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths. When EMR interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior depends on

6624-504: The Académie des Sciences in 1817. Siméon Denis Poisson added to Fresnel's mathematical work to produce a convincing argument in favor of the wave theory, helping to overturn Newton's corpuscular theory. By the year 1821, Fresnel was able to show via mathematical methods that polarization could be explained by the wave theory of light if and only if light was entirely transverse, with no longitudinal vibration whatsoever. The weakness of

6762-534: The Big Bang to have had enough time to reach Earth or space-based instruments, and therefore lie outside the observable universe. In the future, light from distant galaxies will have had more time to travel, so one might expect that additional regions will become observable. Regions distant from observers (such as us) are expanding away faster than the speed of light, at rates estimated by Hubble's law . The expansion rate appears to be accelerating , which dark energy

6900-619: The University of Hawaii 's Institute of Astronomy identified what he called the Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex , a structure one billion light-years long and 150 million light-years across in which, he claimed, the Local Supercluster is embedded. The most distant astronomical object identified (as of August of 2024) is a galaxy classified as JADES-GS-z14-0 . In 2009, a gamma ray burst , GRB 090423 ,

7038-428: The aurora borealis offer many clues as to the nature of light. A transparent object allows light to transmit or pass through. Conversely, an opaque object does not allow light to transmit through and instead reflecting or absorbing the light it receives. Most objects do not reflect or transmit light specularly and to some degree scatters the incoming light, which is called glossiness . Surface scatterance

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7176-408: The grains of beach sand on planet Earth . Other estimates are in the hundreds of billions rather than trillions. The estimated total number of stars in an inflationary universe (observed and unobserved) is 10. Assuming the mass of ordinary matter is about 1.45 × 10 kg as discussed above, and assuming all atoms are hydrogen atoms (which are about 74% of all atoms in the Milky Way by mass),

7314-573: The infrared (with longer wavelengths and lower frequencies) and the ultraviolet (with shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies), called collectively optical radiation . In physics , the term "light" may refer more broadly to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not. In this sense, gamma rays , X-rays , microwaves and radio waves are also light. The primary properties of light are intensity , propagation direction, frequency or wavelength spectrum , and polarization . Its speed in vacuum , 299 792 458  m/s ,

7452-414: The intergalactic medium (IGM). However, it excludes dark matter and dark energy . This quoted value for the mass of ordinary matter in the universe can be estimated based on critical density. The calculations are for the observable universe only as the volume of the whole is unknown and may be infinite. Critical density is the energy density for which the universe is flat. If there is no dark energy, it

7590-431: The reflection of light, but could only explain refraction by incorrectly assuming that light accelerated upon entering a denser medium because the gravitational pull was greater. Newton published the final version of his theory in his Opticks of 1704. His reputation helped the particle theory of light to hold sway during the eighteenth century. The particle theory of light led Pierre-Simon Laplace to argue that

7728-624: The refraction of light in his book Optics . In ancient India , the Hindu schools of Samkhya and Vaisheshika , from around the early centuries AD developed theories on light. According to the Samkhya school, light is one of the five fundamental "subtle" elements ( tanmatra ) out of which emerge the gross elements. The atomicity of these elements is not specifically mentioned and it appears that they were actually taken to be continuous. The Vishnu Purana refers to sunlight as "the seven rays of

7866-464: The " proper distance " used in both Hubble's law and in defining the size of the observable universe. Cosmologist Ned Wright argues against using this measure. The proper distance for a redshift of 8.2 would be about 9.2 Gpc , or about 30 billion light-years. The limit of observability in the universe is set by cosmological horizons which limit—based on various physical constraints—the extent to which information can be obtained about various events in

8004-484: The "cosmic web". Prior to 1989, it was commonly assumed that virialized galaxy clusters were the largest structures in existence, and that they were distributed more or less uniformly throughout the universe in every direction. However, since the early 1980s, more and more structures have been discovered. In 1983, Adrian Webster identified the Webster LQG , a large quasar group consisting of 5 quasars. The discovery

8142-446: The Earth if the event is less than 16 billion light-years away, but the signal will never reach the Earth if the event is further away. The space before this cosmic event horizon can be called "reachable universe", that is all galaxies closer than that could be reached if we left for them today, at the speed of light; all galaxies beyond that are unreachable. Simple observation will show the future visibility limit (62 billion light-years)

8280-424: The Earth, although many credible theories require a total universe much larger than the observable universe. No evidence exists to suggest that the boundary of the observable universe constitutes a boundary on the universe as a whole, nor do any of the mainstream cosmological models propose that the universe has any physical boundary in the first place. However, some models propose it could be finite but unbounded, like

8418-666: The European Space Agency's Planck Telescope, is H 0 = 67.15 kilometres per second per megaparsec. This gives a critical density of 0.85 × 10 kg/m , or about 5 hydrogen atoms per cubic metre. This density includes four significant types of energy/mass: ordinary matter (4.8%), neutrinos (0.1%), cold dark matter (26.8%), and dark energy (68.3%). Although neutrinos are Standard Model particles, they are listed separately because they are ultra-relativistic and hence behave like radiation rather than like matter. The density of ordinary matter, as measured by Planck,

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8556-620: The Giant Void mentioned above. Another large-scale structure is the SSA22 Protocluster , a collection of galaxies and enormous gas bubbles that measures about 200 million light-years across. In 2011, a large quasar group was discovered, U1.11 , measuring about 2.5 billion light-years across. On January 11, 2013, another large quasar group, the Huge-LQG , was discovered, which was measured to be four billion light-years across,

8694-676: The U.K., of light from the brightest part of this web, surrounding and illuminated by a cluster of forming galaxies, acting as cosmic flashlights for intercluster medium hydrogen fluorescence via Lyman-alpha emissions. In 2021, an international team, headed by Roland Bacon from the Centre de Recherche Astrophysique de Lyon (France), reported the first observation of diffuse extended Lyman-alpha emission from redshift 3.1 to 4.5 that traced several cosmic web filaments on scales of 2.5−4  cMpc (comoving mega-parsecs), in filamentary environments outside massive structures typical of web nodes. Some caution

8832-456: The amount of energy per quantum it carries. EMR in the visible light region consists of quanta (called photons ) that are at the lower end of the energies that are capable of causing electronic excitation within molecules, which leads to changes in the bonding or chemistry of the molecule. At the lower end of the visible light spectrum, EMR becomes invisible to humans (infrared) because its photons no longer have enough individual energy to cause

8970-470: The apparent size of images. Magnifying glasses , spectacles , contact lenses , microscopes and refracting telescopes are all examples of this manipulation. There are many sources of light. A body at a given temperature emits a characteristic spectrum of black-body radiation . A simple thermal source is sunlight , the radiation emitted by the chromosphere of the Sun at around 6,000  K (5,730  °C ; 10,340  °F ). Solar radiation peaks in

9108-549: The beam from the eye travels infinitely fast this is not a problem. In 55 BC, Lucretius , a Roman who carried on the ideas of earlier Greek atomists , wrote that "The light & heat of the sun; these are composed of minute atoms which, when they are shoved off, lose no time in shooting right across the interspace of air in the direction imparted by the shove." (from On the nature of the Universe ). Despite being similar to later particle theories, Lucretius's views were not generally accepted. Ptolemy (c. second century) wrote about

9246-452: The boundary between a vacuum and another medium, or between two different media, the wavelength of the light changes, but the frequency remains constant. If the beam of light is not orthogonal (or rather normal) to the boundary, the change in wavelength results in a change in the direction of the beam. This change of direction is known as refraction . The refractive quality of lenses is frequently used to manipulate light in order to change

9384-420: The case of a horizon perceived by a uniformly accelerating observer in empty space, the horizon seems to remain a fixed distance from the observer no matter how its surroundings move. Varying the observer's acceleration may cause the horizon to appear to move over time or may prevent an event horizon from existing, depending on the acceleration function chosen. The observer never touches the horizon and never passes

9522-543: The centre of the Hydra–Centaurus Supercluster , a gravitational anomaly called the Great Attractor affects the motion of galaxies over a region hundreds of millions of light-years across. These galaxies are all redshifted , in accordance with Hubble's law . This indicates that they are receding from us and from each other, but the variations in their redshift are sufficient to reveal the existence of

9660-416: The collapse in the far future, observers in a galaxy surrounded by an event horizon would proceed with their lives normally. Black hole event horizons are widely misunderstood. Common, although erroneous, is the notion that black holes "vacuum up" material in their neighborhood, where in fact they are no more capable of seeking out material to consume than any other gravitational attractor. As with any mass in

9798-592: The concept of light is intended to include very-high-energy photons (gamma rays), additional generation mechanisms include: Light is measured with two main alternative sets of units: radiometry consists of measurements of light power at all wavelengths, while photometry measures light with wavelength weighted with respect to a standardized model of human brightness perception. Photometry is useful, for example, to quantify Illumination (lighting) intended for human use. The photometry units are different from most systems of physical units in that they take into account how

9936-487: The constellation Boötes from observations captured by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey . The End of Greatness is an observational scale discovered at roughly 100  Mpc (roughly 300 million light-years) where the lumpiness seen in the large-scale structure of the universe is homogenized and isotropized in accordance with the cosmological principle . At this scale, no pseudo-random fractalness

10074-444: The controversial black hole firewall hypothesis, matter falling into a black hole would be burned to a crisp by a high energy "firewall" at the event horizon. An alternative is provided by the complementarity principle , according to which, in the chart of the far observer, infalling matter is thermalized at the horizon and reemitted as Hawking radiation, while in the chart of an infalling observer matter continues undisturbed through

10212-403: The current redshift z from 5 to 10 will only be observable up to an age of 4–6 billion years. In addition, light emitted by objects currently situated beyond a certain comoving distance (currently about 19 gigaparsecs (62 Gly)) will never reach Earth. The universe's size is unknown, and it may be infinite in extent. Some parts of the universe are too far away for the light emitted since

10350-451: The diameter of Earth's orbit. However, its size was not known at that time. If Rømer had known the diameter of the Earth's orbit, he would have calculated a speed of 227 000 000  m/s . Another more accurate measurement of the speed of light was performed in Europe by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1849. Fizeau directed a beam of light at a mirror several kilometers away. A rotating cog wheel

10488-492: The diameter of the observable universe, the total mass of ordinary matter in the universe can be calculated to be about 1.5 × 10 kg . In November 2018, astronomers reported that extragalactic background light (EBL) amounted to 4 × 10 photons. As the universe's expansion is accelerating, all currently observable objects, outside the local supercluster , will eventually appear to freeze in time, while emitting progressively redder and fainter light. For instance, objects with

10626-584: The distance to that matter at the time the light was emitted, we may first note that according to the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric , which is used to model the expanding universe, if we receive light with a redshift of z , then the scale factor at the time the light was originally emitted is given by a ( t ) = 1 1 + z {\displaystyle a(t)={\frac {1}{1+z}}} . WMAP nine-year results combined with other measurements give

10764-534: The edge of the observable universe is about 14.26 giga parsecs (46.5 billion light-years or 4.40 × 10 m) in any direction. The observable universe is thus a sphere with a diameter of about 28.5 gigaparsecs (93 billion light-years or 8.8 × 10 m). Assuming that space is roughly flat (in the sense of being a Euclidean space ), this size corresponds to a comoving volume of about 1.22 × 10 Gpc ( 4.22 × 10 Gly or 3.57 × 10 m ). These are distances now (in cosmological time ), not distances at

10902-628: The edge of the observable universe is the age of the universe times the speed of light , 13.8 billion light years. This is the distance that a photon emitted shortly after the Big Bang, such as one from the cosmic microwave background , has traveled to reach observers on Earth. Because spacetime is curved, corresponding to the expansion of space , this distance does not correspond to the true distance at any moment in time. The observable universe contains as many as an estimated 2 trillion galaxies and, overall, as many as an estimated 10 stars – more stars (and, potentially, Earth-like planets) than all

11040-415: The environment of the cluster looks somewhat pinched if using redshifts to measure distance. The opposite effect is observed on galaxies already within a cluster: the galaxies have some random motion around the cluster center, and when these random motions are converted to redshifts, the cluster appears elongated. This creates a " finger of God "—the illusion of a long chain of galaxies pointed at Earth. At

11178-464: The estimated total number of atoms in the observable universe is obtained by dividing the mass of ordinary matter by the mass of a hydrogen atom. The result is approximately 10 hydrogen atoms, also known as the Eddington number . The mass of the observable universe is often quoted as 10 kg. In this context, mass refers to ordinary (baryonic) matter and includes the interstellar medium (ISM) and

11316-482: The event horizon is defined from the causal structure as the past null cone of future conformal timelike infinity. A black hole event horizon is teleological in nature, meaning that it is determined by future causes. More precisely, one would need to know the entire history of the universe and all the way into the infinite future to determine the presence of an event horizon, which is not possible for quasilocal observers (not even in principle). In other words, there

11454-459: The event horizon. However, in supermassive black holes , which are found in centers of galaxies, spaghettification occurs inside the event horizon. A human astronaut would survive the fall through an event horizon only in a black hole with a mass of approximately 10,000 solar masses or greater. A cosmic event horizon is commonly accepted as a real event horizon, whereas the description of a local black hole event horizon given by general relativity

11592-497: The eye. Another supporter of the wave theory was Leonhard Euler . He argued in Nova theoria lucis et colorum (1746) that diffraction could more easily be explained by a wave theory. In 1816 André-Marie Ampère gave Augustin-Jean Fresnel an idea that the polarization of light can be explained by the wave theory if light were a transverse wave . Later, Fresnel independently worked out his own wave theory of light and presented it to

11730-434: The eyes and rays from a source such as the sun. In about 300 BC, Euclid wrote Optica , in which he studied the properties of light. Euclid postulated that light travelled in straight lines and he described the laws of reflection and studied them mathematically. He questioned that sight is the result of a beam from the eye, for he asks how one sees the stars immediately, if one closes one's eyes, then opens them at night. If

11868-437: The fifth century BC, Empedocles postulated that everything was composed of four elements ; fire, air, earth and water. He believed that goddess Aphrodite made the human eye out of the four elements and that she lit the fire in the eye which shone out from the eye making sight possible. If this were true, then one could see during the night just as well as during the day, so Empedocles postulated an interaction between rays from

12006-425: The force of pressure acting on the back. Hence, as the resultant of the two forces, there remains a force that counteracts the motion of the plate and that increases with the velocity of the plate. We will call this resultant 'radiation friction' in brief." Usually light momentum is aligned with its direction of motion. However, for example in evanescent waves momentum is transverse to direction of propagation. In

12144-428: The galaxy looked like 10 billion years after the Big Bang, even though it remains at the same comoving distance less than that of the observable universe. This can be used to define a type of cosmic event horizon whose distance from the Earth changes over time. For example, the current distance to this horizon is about 16 billion light-years, meaning that a signal from an event happening at present can eventually reach

12282-430: The gravitational influence of a massive object exceeds the speed of light , then light originating inside or from it can escape temporarily but will return. In 1958, David Finkelstein used general relativity to introduce a stricter definition of a local black hole event horizon as a boundary beyond which events of any kind cannot affect an outside observer, leading to information and firewall paradoxes, encouraging

12420-501: The hole is as inevitable as moving forward in time – no matter in what direction the particle is travelling – and can be thought of as equivalent to doing so, depending on the spacetime coordinate system used. The surface at the Schwarzschild radius acts as an event horizon in a non-rotating body that fits inside this radius (although a rotating black hole operates slightly differently). The Schwarzschild radius of an object

12558-440: The horizon is finite, so the length of rope needed would be finite as well, but if the rope were lowered slowly (so that each point on the rope was approximately at rest in Schwarzschild coordinates ), the proper acceleration ( G-force ) experienced by points on the rope closer and closer to the horizon would approach infinity, so the rope would be torn apart. If the rope is lowered quickly (perhaps even in freefall ), then indeed

12696-469: The horizon remain stationary with respect to an observer requires applying a force whose magnitude increases unboundedly (becoming infinite) the closer it gets. In the case of the horizon around a black hole, observers stationary with respect to a distant object will all agree on where the horizon is. While this seems to allow an observer lowered towards the hole on a rope (or rod) to contact the horizon, in practice this cannot be done. The proper distance to

12834-421: The human eye responds to light. The cone cells in the human eye are of three types which respond differently across the visible spectrum and the cumulative response peaks at a wavelength of around 555 nm. Therefore, two sources of light which produce the same intensity (W/m ) of visible light do not necessarily appear equally bright. The photometry units are designed to take this into account and therefore are

12972-409: The infinite future is only larger than the number currently observable by a factor of 2.36 (ignoring redshift effects). In principle, more galaxies will become observable in the future; in practice, an increasing number of galaxies will become extremely redshifted due to ongoing expansion, so much so that they will seem to disappear from view and become invisible. A galaxy at a given comoving distance

13110-418: The infrared and only a fraction in the visible spectrum. The peak of the black-body spectrum is in the deep infrared, at about 10 micrometre wavelength, for relatively cool objects like human beings. As the temperature increases, the peak shifts to shorter wavelengths, producing first a red glow, then a white one and finally a blue-white colour as the peak moves out of the visible part of the spectrum and into

13248-401: The infrared radiation. EMR in this range causes molecular vibration and heating effects, which is how these animals detect it. Above the range of visible light, ultraviolet light becomes invisible to humans, mostly because it is absorbed by the cornea below 360 nm and the internal lens below 400 nm. Furthermore, the rods and cones located in the retina of the human eye cannot detect

13386-462: The inner region and is destroyed at the singularity. This hypothesis does not violate the no-cloning theorem as there is a single copy of the information according to any given observer. Black hole complementarity is actually suggested by the scaling laws of strings approaching the event horizon, suggesting that in the Schwarzschild chart they stretch to cover the horizon and thermalize into

13524-433: The intervening universe in general also subtly changes the observed large-scale structure. The large-scale structure of the universe also looks different if only redshift is used to measure distances to galaxies. For example, galaxies behind a galaxy cluster are attracted to it and fall towards it, and so are blueshifted (compared to how they would be if there were no cluster). On the near side, objects are redshifted. Thus,

13662-684: The largest known structure in the universe at that time. In November 2013, astronomers discovered the Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall , an even bigger structure twice as large as the former. It was defined by the mapping of gamma-ray bursts . In 2021, the American Astronomical Society announced the detection of the Giant Arc ; a crescent-shaped string of galaxies that span 3.3 billion light years in length, located 9.2 billion light years from Earth in

13800-426: The luminous body, rejecting the "forms" of Ibn al-Haytham and Witelo as well as the "species" of Roger Bacon , Robert Grosseteste and Johannes Kepler . In 1637 he published a theory of the refraction of light that assumed, incorrectly, that light travelled faster in a denser medium than in a less dense medium. Descartes arrived at this conclusion by analogy with the behaviour of sound waves. Although Descartes

13938-413: The movement of matter. He wrote, "radiation will exert pressure on both sides of the plate. The forces of pressure exerted on the two sides are equal if the plate is at rest. However, if it is in motion, more radiation will be reflected on the surface that is ahead during the motion (front surface) than on the back surface. The backwardacting force of pressure exerted on the front surface is thus larger than

14076-402: The nature of the expansion of the universe . If the expansion has certain characteristics, parts of the universe will never be observable, no matter how long the observer waits for the light from those regions to arrive. The boundary beyond which events cannot ever be observed is an event horizon, and it represents the maximum extent of the particle horizon. The criterion for determining whether

14214-403: The observer at the bottom of the rope can touch and even cross the event horizon. But once this happens it is impossible to pull the bottom of rope back out of the event horizon, since if the rope is pulled taut, the forces along the rope increase without bound as they approach the event horizon and at some point the rope must break. Furthermore, the break must occur not at the event horizon, but at

14352-423: The observer in the future. This differs from the concept of the particle horizon , which represents the largest comoving distance from which light emitted in the past could reach the observer at a given time. For events that occur beyond that distance, light has not had enough time to reach our location, even if it was emitted at the time the universe began. The evolution of the particle horizon with time depends on

14490-454: The opposite. At that time, the speed of light could not be measured accurately enough to decide which theory was correct. The first to make a sufficiently accurate measurement was Léon Foucault , in 1850. His result supported the wave theory, and the classical particle theory was finally abandoned (only to partly re-emerge in the twentieth century as photons in quantum theory ). Event horizon In astrophysics , an event horizon

14628-436: The popular description of light being "stopped" in these experiments refers only to light being stored in the excited states of atoms, then re-emitted at an arbitrary later time, as stimulated by a second laser pulse. During the time it had "stopped", it had ceased to be light. The study of light and the interaction of light and matter is termed optics . The observation and study of optical phenomena such as rainbows and

14766-534: The position of galaxies in three dimensions, which involves combining location information about the galaxies with distance information from redshifts . Two years later, astronomers Roger G. Clowes and Luis E. Campusano discovered the Clowes–Campusano LQG , a large quasar group measuring two billion light-years at its widest point, which was the largest known structure in the universe at the time of its announcement. In April 2003, another large-scale structure

14904-532: The pre-inflation size of the universe was approximately equal to the speed of light times its age, that would suggest that at present the entire universe's size is at least 1.5 × 10 light-years—at least 3 × 10 times the radius of the observable universe. If the universe is finite but unbounded, it is also possible that the universe is smaller than the observable universe. In this case, what we take to be very distant galaxies may actually be duplicate images of nearby galaxies, formed by light that has circumnavigated

15042-507: The primary impact of quantum effects is for event horizons to possess a temperature and so emit radiation. For black holes, this manifests as Hawking radiation, and the larger question of how the black hole possesses a temperature is part of the topic of black hole thermodynamics . For accelerating particles, this manifests as the Unruh effect , which causes space around the particle to appear to be filled with matter and radiation. According to

15180-528: The re-examination of the concept of local event horizons and the notion of black holes. Several theories were subsequently developed, some with and some without event horizons. One of the leading developers of theories to describe black holes, Stephen Hawking , suggested that an apparent horizon should be used instead of an event horizon, saying, "Gravitational collapse produces apparent horizons but no event horizons." He eventually concluded that "the absence of event horizons means that there are no black holes – in

15318-420: The redshift of photon decoupling as z  =  1 091 .64 ± 0.47 , which implies that the scale factor at the time of photon decoupling would be 1 ⁄ 1092.64 . So if the matter that originally emitted the oldest CMBR photons has a present distance of 46 billion light-years, then the distance would have been only about 42 million light-years at the time of decoupling. The light-travel distance to

15456-467: The sense of regimes from which light can't escape to infinity ." Any object approaching the horizon from the observer's side appears to slow down, never quite crossing the horizon. Due to gravitational redshift , its image reddens over time as the object moves closer to the horizon. In an expanding universe, the speed of expansion reaches — and even exceeds — the speed of light, preventing signals from traveling to some regions. A cosmic event horizon

15594-417: The signals could not have reached us yet. Sometimes astrophysicists distinguish between the observable universe and the visible universe. The former includes signals since the end of the inflationary epoch , while the latter includes only signals emitted since recombination . According to calculations, the current comoving distance to particles from which the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR)

15732-466: The singularity. Other objects that had entered the horizon area along the same radial path but at an earlier time would appear below the observer as long as they are not entered inside the apparent horizon, and they could exchange messages. Increasing tidal forces are also locally noticeable effects, as a function of the mass of the black hole. In realistic stellar black holes , spaghettification occurs early: tidal forces tear materials apart well before

15870-563: The spectra of light from quasars , which are interpreted as indicating the existence of huge thin sheets of intergalactic (mostly hydrogen ) gas. These sheets appear to collapse into filaments, which can feed galaxies as they grow where filaments either cross or are dense. An early direct evidence for this cosmic web of gas was the 2019 detection, by astronomers from the RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research in Japan and Durham University in

16008-601: The spectrum of each atom. Emission can be spontaneous , as in light-emitting diodes , gas discharge lamps (such as neon lamps and neon signs , mercury-vapor lamps , etc.) and flames (light from the hot gas itself—so, for example, sodium in a gas flame emits characteristic yellow light). Emission can also be stimulated , as in a laser or a microwave maser . Deceleration of a free charged particle, such as an electron , can produce visible radiation: cyclotron radiation , synchrotron radiation and bremsstrahlung radiation are all examples of this. Particles moving through

16146-435: The speed of light throughout history. Galileo attempted to measure the speed of light in the seventeenth century. An early experiment to measure the speed of light was conducted by Ole Rømer , a Danish physicist, in 1676. Using a telescope , Rømer observed the motions of Jupiter and one of its moons , Io . Noting discrepancies in the apparent period of Io's orbit, he calculated that light takes about 22 minutes to traverse

16284-406: The sun". The Indian Buddhists , such as Dignāga in the fifth century and Dharmakirti in the seventh century, developed a type of atomism that is a philosophy about reality being composed of atomic entities that are momentary flashes of light or energy. They viewed light as being an atomic entity equivalent to energy. René Descartes (1596–1650) held that light was a mechanical property of

16422-441: The surface of last scattering for neutrinos and gravitational waves . Light Light , visible light , or visible radiation is electromagnetic radiation that can be perceived by the human eye . Visible light spans the visible spectrum and is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nanometres (nm), corresponding to frequencies of 750–420 terahertz . The visible band sits adjacent to

16560-472: The time the light was emitted. For example, the cosmic microwave background radiation that we see right now was emitted at the time of photon decoupling , estimated to have occurred about 380,000 years after the Big Bang, which occurred around 13.8 billion years ago. This radiation was emitted by matter that has, in the intervening time, mostly condensed into galaxies, and those galaxies are now calculated to be about 46 billion light-years from Earth. To estimate

16698-486: The ultraviolet. These colours can be seen when metal is heated to "red hot" or "white hot". Blue-white thermal emission is not often seen, except in stars (the commonly seen pure-blue colour in a gas flame or a welder 's torch is in fact due to molecular emission, notably by CH radicals emitting a wavelength band around 425 nm and is not seen in stars or pure thermal radiation). Atoms emit and absorb light at characteristic energies. This produces " emission lines " in

16836-462: The universe, matter must come within its gravitational scope for the possibility to exist of capture or consolidation with any other mass. Equally common is the idea that matter can be observed falling into a black hole. This is not possible. Astronomers can detect only accretion disks around black holes, where material moves with such speed that friction creates high-energy radiation that can be detected (similarly, some matter from these accretion disks

16974-535: The universe. It is difficult to test this hypothesis experimentally because different images of a galaxy would show different eras in its history, and consequently might appear quite different. Bielewicz et al. claim to establish a lower bound of 27.9 gigaparsecs (91 billion light-years) on the diameter of the last scattering surface. This value is based on matching-circle analysis of the WMAP 7-year data. This approach has been disputed. The comoving distance from Earth to

17112-403: The universe. The most famous horizon is the particle horizon which sets a limit on the precise distance that can be seen due to the finite age of the universe . Additional horizons are associated with the possible future extent of observations, larger than the particle horizon owing to the expansion of space , an "optical horizon" at the surface of last scattering , and associated horizons with

17250-430: The various wavelength bands of electromagnetic radiation (in particular 21-cm emission ) have yielded much information on the content and character of the universe 's structure. The organization of structure appears to follow a hierarchical model with organization up to the scale of superclusters and filaments . Larger than this (at scales between 30 and 200 megaparsecs), there seems to be no continued structure,

17388-624: The very short (below 360 nm) ultraviolet wavelengths and are in fact damaged by ultraviolet. Many animals with eyes that do not require lenses (such as insects and shrimp) are able to detect ultraviolet, by quantum photon-absorption mechanisms, in much the same chemical way that humans detect visible light. Various sources define visible light as narrowly as 420–680 nm to as broadly as 380–800 nm. Under ideal laboratory conditions, people can see infrared up to at least 1,050 nm; children and young adults may perceive ultraviolet wavelengths down to about 310–313 nm. Plant growth

17526-427: The visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum when plotted in wavelength units, and roughly 44% of the radiation that reaches the ground is visible. Another example is incandescent light bulbs , which emit only around 10% of their energy as visible light and the remainder as infrared. A common thermal light source in history is the glowing solid particles in flames , but these also emit most of their radiation in

17664-480: The wave theory was that light waves, like sound waves, would need a medium for transmission. The existence of the hypothetical substance luminiferous aether proposed by Huygens in 1678 was cast into strong doubt in the late nineteenth century by the Michelson–Morley experiment . Newton's corpuscular theory implied that light would travel faster in a denser medium, while the wave theory of Huygens and others implied

17802-468: Was discovered, the Giant Void , which measures 1.3 billion light-years across. Based on redshift survey data, in 1989 Margaret Geller and John Huchra discovered the " Great Wall ", a sheet of galaxies more than 500 million light-years long and 200 million light-years wide, but only 15 million light-years thick. The existence of this structure escaped notice for so long because it requires locating

17940-485: Was discovered, the Sloan Great Wall . In August 2007, a possible supervoid was detected in the constellation Eridanus . It coincides with the ' CMB cold spot ', a cold region in the microwave sky that is highly improbable under the currently favored cosmological model. This supervoid could cause the cold spot, but to do so it would have to be improbably big, possibly a billion light-years across, almost as big as

18078-576: Was emitted in all directions as a series of waves in a medium called the luminiferous aether . As waves are not affected by gravity, it was assumed that they slowed down upon entering a denser medium. The wave theory predicted that light waves could interfere with each other like sound waves (as noted around 1800 by Thomas Young ). Young showed by means of a diffraction experiment that light behaved as waves. He also proposed that different colours were caused by different wavelengths of light and explained colour vision in terms of three-coloured receptors in

18216-407: Was emitted, which represents the radius of the visible universe, is about 14.0 billion parsecs (about 45.7 billion light-years). The comoving distance to the edge of the observable universe is about 14.3 billion parsecs (about 46.6 billion light-years), about 2% larger. The radius of the observable universe is therefore estimated to be about 46.5 billion light-years. Using the critical density and

18354-432: Was for the first time qualitatively explained by Newton using the particle theory. Étienne-Louis Malus in 1810 created a mathematical particle theory of polarization. Jean-Baptiste Biot in 1812 showed that this theory explained all known phenomena of light polarization. At that time the polarization was considered as the proof of the particle theory. To explain the origin of colours , Robert Hooke (1635–1703) developed

18492-447: Was found to have a redshift of 8.2, which indicates that the collapsing star that caused it exploded when the universe was only 630 million years old. The burst happened approximately 13 billion years ago, so a distance of about 13 billion light-years was widely quoted in the media, or sometimes a more precise figure of 13.035 billion light-years. This would be the "light travel distance" (see Distance measures (cosmology) ) rather than

18630-404: Was incorrect about the relative speeds, he was correct in assuming that light behaved like a wave and in concluding that refraction could be explained by the speed of light in different media. Descartes is not the first to use the mechanical analogies but because he clearly asserts that light is only a mechanical property of the luminous body and the transmitting medium, Descartes's theory of light

18768-521: Was placed in the path of the light beam as it traveled from the source, to the mirror and then returned to its origin. Fizeau found that at a certain rate of rotation, the beam would pass through one gap in the wheel on the way out and the next gap on the way back. Knowing the distance to the mirror, the number of teeth on the wheel and the rate of rotation, Fizeau was able to calculate the speed of light as 313 000 000  m/s . Léon Foucault carried out an experiment which used rotating mirrors to obtain

18906-419: Was proposed to explain. Assuming dark energy remains constant (an unchanging cosmological constant ) so that the expansion rate of the universe continues to accelerate, there is a "future visibility limit" beyond which objects will never enter the observable universe at any time in the future because light emitted by objects outside that limit could never reach the Earth. Note that, because the Hubble parameter

19044-417: Was the first identification of a large-scale structure, and has expanded the information about the known grouping of matter in the universe. In 1987, Robert Brent Tully identified the Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex , the galaxy filament in which the Milky Way resides. It is about 1 billion light-years across. That same year, an unusually large region with a much lower than average distribution of galaxies

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