A mill town , also known as factory town or mill village , is typically a settlement that developed around one or more mills or factories, often cotton mills or factories producing textiles.
54-545: Oella is a mill town on the Patapsco River in western Baltimore County , Maryland , United States, located between Catonsville and Ellicott City . It is a 19th-century village of millworkers' homes. Oella was founded in 1808 by the Union Manufacturing Company as a working class community for the company's mill workers. It was one of the earliest and most extensive cotton factories in
108-485: A company town , grew in the shadow of the industries. The region became a manufacturing powerhouse along rivers like the Housatonic , Quinebaug , Shetucket , Blackstone , Merrimack , Nashua , Cocheco , Saco , Androscoggin , Kennebec or Winooski . In the 20th century, alternatives to water power were developed, and it became more profitable for companies to manufacture textiles in southern states where cotton
162-510: A cotton gin . The cotton gin separates seeds and removes the "trash" (dirt, stems and leaves) from the fibre. In a saw gin, circular saws grab the fibre and pull it through a grating that is too narrow for the seeds to pass. A roller gin is used with longer-staple cotton. Here, a leather roller captures the cotton. A knife blade, set close to the roller, detaches the seeds by drawing them through teeth in circular saws and revolving brushes which clean them away. The ginned cotton fibre, known as lint,
216-404: A cone-shaped bundle of fibres known as a "cop", as the carriage returns. Mule spinning produces a finer thread than ring spinning . The mule was an intermittent process, as the frame advanced and returned a distance of five feet. It was the descendant of the 1779 Crompton device. It produces a softer, less twisted thread that was favoured for fine fabrics and wefts. The ring was a descendant of
270-476: A continuous soft fleecy sheet, known as a lap. Scutching refers to the process of cleaning cotton of its seeds and other impurities. The first scutching machine was invented in 1797, but did not come into further mainstream use until after 1808 or 1809, when it was introduced and used in Manchester, England. By 1816, it had become generally adopted. The scutching machine worked by passing the cotton through
324-424: A loose strand (sliver or tow). The cotton comes off of the picking machine in laps, and is then taken to carding machines. The carders line up the fibres neatly to make them easier to spin. The carding machine consists mainly of one big roller with smaller ones surrounding it. All of the rollers are covered in small teeth, and as the cotton is moved forwards, the teeth get finer (i.e. closer together). The cotton leaves
378-424: A machine with large spikes, called an opener . To fluff up the cotton and remove the vegetable matter, the cotton is sent through a picker or a similar machine. In a picker , the cotton is beaten with a beater bar to loosen it up. It is then fed through various rollers, which serve to remove the vegetable matter. The cotton, aided by fans, then collects on a screen and gets fed through more rollers where it emerges as
432-445: A pair of rollers, and then striking it with iron or steel bars called beater bars or beaters. The beaters, which turn very quickly, strike the cotton hard and knock the seeds out. This process is done over a series of parallel bars so as to allow the seeds to fall through. At the same time, air is blown across the bars, which carries the cotton into a cotton chamber. In the carding process, the fibres are separated and then assembled into
486-415: A plain loom. A Northrop Loom was fully automatic and was mass-produced between 1909 and the mid-1960s. Modern looms run faster and do not use a shuttle: there are air jet looms, water jet looms, and rapier looms . Ends and Picks: Picks refer to the weft, ends refer to the warp. The coarseness of the cloth can be expressed as the number of picks and ends per quarter-inch square, or per inch square. Ends
540-908: A symbol in the badge of local schools (e.g. Ossett School ). Congleton , Crewe , Macclesfield Glossop , Hadfield , New Mills Ashton-under-Lyne , Bolton , Bury , Chadderton , Failsworth , Heywood , Hyde , Lees , Leigh , Manchester, Middleton , Oldham , Radcliffe , Ramsbottom , Reddish , Rochdale , Royton , Shaw and Crompton , Stalybridge , Stockport , Wigan Accrington , Bacup , Barnoldswick , Blackburn , Burnley , Calder Vale , Chorley , Colne , Darwen , Nelson , Oakenclough , Padiham , Preston for others see table below. Batley , Bingley , Bradford , Brighouse , Cleckheaton , Dewsbury , Elland , Halifax , Hebden Bridge , Heckmondwike , Holmfirth , Huddersfield , Keighley , Morley , Mytholmroyd , Ossett , Pudsey , Shipley , Skipton , Sowerby Bridge , Todmorden , Yeadon The list above includes some towns where textiles
594-413: A very thick rope of cotton fibres, the slivers are separated into rovings. Generally speaking, for machine processing, a roving is about the width of a pencil. These rovings (or slubbings) are then what are used in the spinning process. Most spinning today is done using break, or open-end spinning . This is a technique where the fibres are blown by air into a rotating drum, where they attach themselves to
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#1732793784790648-452: Is a major industry . It is largely based on the conversion of fibre into yarn , then yarn into fabric. These are then dyed or printed, fabricated into cloth which is then converted into useful goods such as clothing , household items, upholstery and various industrial products. Different types of fibres are used to produce yarn. Cotton remains the most widely used and common natural fiber making up 90% of all-natural fibers used in
702-488: Is a weft knit. Finishing is a broad range of physical and chemical processes/treatments that complete one stage of textile manufacturing, sometimes in preparation for the next step. Finishing adds value to the product and makes it more attractive, useful and functional for the end-user. Fresh off the loom, cotton fabric not only contains impurities, including warp size, but it also requires further treatment to develop its full potential and to add to its value. Depending on
756-433: Is always written first. For example: Heavy domestics are made from coarse yarns, such as 10's to 14's warp and weft, and about 48 ends and 52 picks. Associated job titles include piecer, scavenger , weaver, tackler , draw boy. When a hand loom was located in the home, children helped with the weaving process from an early age. Piecing needs dexterity, and a child can be as productive as an adult. When weaving moved from
810-470: Is boiled in an alkali solution, which forms a soap with free fatty acids. A kier is usually enclosed, so the solution of sodium hydroxide can be boiled under pressure, excluding oxygen , which would degrade the cellulose in the fibre. If the appropriate reagents are used, scouring will also remove size from the fabric, although desizing often precedes scouring and is considered to be a separate process. Preparation and scouring are prerequisites to most of
864-404: Is called Indian. The cotton seed is pressed into cooking oil. The husks and meal are processed into animal feed, and the stems into paper. Ginning, bale-making and transportation are done in the country of origin. Cotton is shipped to mills in large 500-pound bales. When the cotton comes out of a bale, it is all packed together and still contains vegetable matter. The bale is broken open using
918-505: Is considered to be 'A Treatise on the Art of Weaving' by John Murphy. Cotton is the world's most important natural fibre. In the year 2007, the global yield was 25 million tons from 35 million hectares cultivated in more than 50 countries. There are six stages to the manufacturing of cotton textiles: Cotton is grown in locations with long, hot, dry summers with plenty of sunshine and low humidity. Indian cotton, Gossypium arboreum ,
972-404: Is done by pulling yarn from two or more bobbins and twisting it together, in a direction opposite to the one it was spun in. Depending on the weight desired, the cotton may or may not be plied, and the number of strands twisted together varies. Gassing is the process of passing yarn very rapidly through a series of Bunsen gas flames in a gassing frame, to burn off the projecting fibres and to make
1026-480: Is done in two different ways; warp and weft. Weft knitting (as seen in the pictures) is similar in method to hand knitting with stitches all connected to each other horizontally. Various weft machines can be configured to produce textiles from a single spool of yarn or multiple spools, depending on the size of the machine cylinder (in which the needles are bedded). In a warp knit , there are many pieces of yarn and there are vertical chains, zigzagged together by crossing
1080-417: Is finer but the staple is only suitable for hand processing. American cotton, Gossypium hirsutum , produces the longer staple needed for mechanised textile production. The planting season is from September to mid-November, and the crop is harvested between March and June. The cotton bolls are harvested by stripper harvesters and spindle pickers that remove the entire boll from the plant. The cotton boll
1134-461: Is mercerised under tension, and all alkali must be washed out before the tension is released, or shrinkage will take place. Many other chemical treatments may be applied to cotton fabrics to produce low flammability, crease-resistance and other qualities, but the four most important non-chemical finishing treatments are: Singeing is designed to burn off the surface fibres from the fabric to produce smoothness. The fabric passes over brushes to raise
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#17327937847901188-472: Is the application of colour in the form of a paste or ink to the surface of a fabric in a predetermined pattern. It can be described as a form of localised dyeing. Printing designs onto previously dyed fabric is also possible. Production of cotton requires arable land . In addition, cotton is farmed intensively and uses large amounts of fertilizer and 25% of the world's insecticides. Native Indian varieties of cotton were rainwater fed, but modern hybrids used for
1242-733: Is the only entire urban industrial complex from the 19th-century to be preserved in Europe. In the United Kingdom, the term "mill town" usually refers to the 19th-century textile manufacturing towns of northern England and the Scottish Lowlands , particularly those in Lancashire (cotton) and Yorkshire ( wool ). Some former mill towns have a symbol of the textile industry in their town badge. Some towns may have statues dedicated to textile workers (e.g. Colne ) or have
1296-504: Is the seed pod of the cotton plant; attached to each of the thousands of seeds are fibres about 2.5 cm long. There is a higher rate of cotton being produced compared to the actual workers needed to produce the material. In 2013 a cotton farmer in Mississippi, Bower Flowers, produced around 13,000 bales of cotton in that year alone. This amount of cotton could be used to produce up to 9.4 million T-shirts. The seed cotton goes into
1350-473: Is the type locality of the Oella Formation , a Late Proterozoic or early Cambrian schist . Mill town The town grew out of a textile factory founded in 1833 by the sons of Feliks Lubienski , who owned the land where it was built. They brought in a specialist from France and his newly designed machines. He was French inventor, Philippe de Girard from Lourmarin . He became a director of
1404-419: Is then compressed into bales which are about 1.5 m tall and weigh almost 220 kg. Only 33% of the crop is usable lint. Commercial cotton is graded and priced according to its quality; this broadly relates to the average length of the staple and the variety of the plant. Longer-staple cotton (2½ in to 1¼ in) is called Egyptian, medium staple (1¼ in to ¾ in) is called American upland, and short staple (less than ¾ in)
1458-471: The War of 1812 ended the embargo, cotton prices fell. A fire at the largest mill on 13 December 1815 took a decade to rebuild and recover from. The Mill rebounded with water driven looms, and expanded to three mill buildings before finally dissolving in 1887 after another drop in textile prices. William J. Dickey of Dickeysville (Gwynns Falls) purchased the mill in 1887, operating it as W.J. Dickey and Sons, naming
1512-422: The weft . The warp, which must be strong, needs to be presented to loom on a warp beam. The weft passes across the loom in a shuttle that carries the yarn on a pirn . These pirns are automatically changed by the loom. Thus, the yarn needs to be wrapped onto a beam, and onto pirns before weaving can commence. After being spun and plied, the cotton thread is taken to a warping room where the winding machine takes
1566-476: The Arkwright Water frame of 1769. It was a continuous process, the yarn was coarser, had a greater twist and was stronger, thus suitable for use as warp thread. Ring spinning is slow due to the distance the thread must pass around the ring. Sewing thread was made of several threads twisted together, or doubled. This is the process where each of the bobbins is rewound to give a tighter bobbin. Plying
1620-810: The Dickey Company ceased manufacturing. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1976. Also listed on the National Register at Oella are the Ellicott's Mills Historic District and Mount Gilboa Chapel . Oella is along the route of the Trolley Line Number 9 Trail . A park commemorating Benjamin Banneker is located in a stream valley woodland at the former site of Banneker's farm and residence at
1674-554: The United States and used water-powered looms as early as 1819. The Union Manufacturing Company was motivated by the Embargo Act of 1807 which required Baltimore merchants to manufacture finished goods in the United States rather than England. Stock in the company was issued to fund a series of industrial mills, the largest working with cotton and wool. Child and indigent labor was used reaching 150 employees in 1811. After
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1728-517: The art and craft industries. Until the 18th and 19th centuries, the textile industry was a household work. It became mechanised in the 18th and 19th centuries, and has continued to develop through science and technology since the twentieth century. Specifically, ancient civilizations in India, Egypt, China, sub-Saharan Africa, Eurasia, South America, and North and East Africa all had some forms of textile production. The first book about textile manufacturing
1782-422: The carding machine in the form of a sliver: a large rope of fibres. In a wider sense, carding can refer to these four processes: Combing is optional, but is used to remove the shorter fibres, creating a stronger yarn. Several slivers are combined. Each sliver will have thin and thick spots, and by combining several slivers together, a more consistent size can be reached. Since combining several slivers produces
1836-422: The cotton yarn. Warp knits do not stretch as much as a weft knits, and they are run-resistant. A weft knit is not run-resistant, but it has more stretch. This is especially true if spools of elastane are processed from separate spool containers and interwoven through the cylinder with cotton yarn, giving the finished product more flexibility and preventing it from having a 'baggy' appearance. The average t-shirt
1890-504: The dents of the reed and the eyes of the healds, in the order indicated by the draft. A pirn-winding frame was used to transfer the weft from cheeses of yarn onto the pirns that would fit into the shuttle. At this point, the thread is woven. Depending on the era, one person could manage anywhere from 3 to 100 machines. In the mid-nineteenth century, four was the standard number. A skilled weaver in 1925 could run 6 Lancashire Looms . As time progressed, new mechanisms were added that stopped
1944-489: The eastern edge of the Oella community. The Baltimore County Department of Recreation and Parks manages the park, which was dedicated on June 9, 1998. The park, which encompasses 138 acres (56 ha) and contains archaeological sites and extensive nature trails, is the largest original African American historical site in the United States. The primary focus of the park is a museum highlighting Banneker's contributions. Oella
1998-410: The fabric is to be dyed a deep shade, then lower levels of bleaching are acceptable. However, for white bedding and for medical applications, the highest levels of whiteness and absorbency are essential. A further possibility is mercerising, during which the fabric is treated with a caustic soda solution, to cause swelling of the fibres. This results in improved lustre, strength and dye affinity. Cotton
2052-403: The fabric will shrink less upon laundering. Dyeing is commonly carried out with an anionic direct dye by completely immersing the fabric (or yarn) in an aqueous dye bath according to a prescribed procedure. For improved fastness to washing, rubbing and light, further dyeing methods can be used. These require more complex chemistry during processing, and are thus more expensive to apply. Printing
2106-413: The fibres, then passes over a plate heated by gas flames. During raising, the fabric surface is treated with sharp teeth to lift the surface fibres, thereby imparting downiness, softness and warmth, as in flannelette. Calendering is a process in which the fabric is passed between heated rollers to generate smooth, polished or embossed effects. Sanforisation is a form of mechanical pre-shrinking, so that
2160-503: The firm. The factory town developed during the 19th century into a significant textile mill town in Poland . In honour of Girard, 'Ruda Guzowska' as the original estate was called, was renamed Żyrardów , a toponym derived of the polonised spelling of Girard's name. Most of Żyrardów's monuments are located in the manufacturing area which dates from the 19th and early 20th centuries. It is widely believed that Żyrardów's textile settlement
2214-878: The home to the mill, children were often allowed to help their older sisters, and laws had to be made to prevent child labour from becoming established. The working conditions of cotton production were often harsh, with long hours, low pay, and dangerous machinery. Children, above all, were also prone to physical abuse and often forced to work in unsanitary conditions. It should also be noted that Children who worked in handlooms often faced extreme poverty and were unable to obtain an education. The working conditions of cotton production were often harsh, with long hours, low pay, and dangerous machinery. Children, above all, were also prone to physical abuse and often forced to work in unsanitary conditions. It should also be noted that Children who worked in handlooms often faced extreme poverty and were unable to obtain an education. Knitting by machine
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2268-546: The loom any time something went wrong. The mechanisms checked for such things as broken warp or weft threads, the shuttle going straight across, and if the shuttle was empty. Forty of these Northrop Looms or automatic looms could be operated by one skilled worker. The three primary movements of a loom are shedding, picking, and beating-up. The Lancashire Loom was the first semi-automatic loom. Jacquard looms and Dobby looms are looms that have sophisticated methods of shedding. They may be separate looms or mechanisms added to
2322-525: The material appearance of the tall chimneys under which they live. Here and there the height of the latter may differ by a few rounds of brick, but in all essential respects, a description of one is a description of all. Beginning with Samuel Slater and technological information smuggled out of England by Francis Cabot Lowell , large mills were established in New England in the early to mid-19th century. Mill towns, sometimes planned, built and owned as
2376-477: The mill "Oella" after the first woman to spin cotton in America. The Oella Historic District includes the village that consists of 19th century workers housing and one late 19th century church. The only known 20th century building is the W.J. Dickey Company Mill constructed in 1919 as a rebuild after a 1918 fire. The plant was eventually used for the city. A drawing from 1812 by Maximilian Godefroy shows most of
2430-491: The other finishing processes. At this stage, even the most naturally white cotton fibres are yellowish, and bleaching is required. Bleaching improves whiteness by removing natural colouration and whatever impurities remain in the cotton; the degree of bleaching is determined by the levels of whiteness and absorbency required of the fabric. Cotton, being a vegetable fibre, is bleached using an oxidizing agent , such as diluted sodium hypochlorite or diluted hydrogen peroxide . If
2484-424: The required length of yarn and winds it onto warpers' bobbins. Racks of bobbins are set up to hold the thread while it is wound onto the warp beam of a loom. Because the thread is fine, often three of these would be combined to get the desired number of ends. A sizing machine is needed for strengthening the warp by adding starch, to reduce breakage. The process of drawing each end of the warp separately through
2538-408: The roving is pulled off a bobbin and fed through rollers, which are feeding at several different speeds. This thins the roving at a consistent rate. If the roving was not a consistent size, then this step could cause a break in the yarn, or jam the machine. The yarn is twisted through the spinning of the bobbin as the carriage moves out, and is rolled onto a cylinder called a spindle, which then produces
2592-427: The size that has been used, the cloth may be steeped in a dilute acid and then rinsed, or enzymes may be used to break down the size. Scouring is a chemical washing process carried out on cotton fabric to remove natural waxes and non-fibrous impurities (like the remains of seed fragments) from the fibres and any soiling or dirt that might remain. Scouring is usually carried out in iron vessels called kiers . The fabric
2646-419: The stone buildings. The brick houses date from the mid-19th century, while the frame buildings were constructed at the end of the century. The Oella Methodist Church is a simple frame building with a tower on the northeast corner, which has been converted into offices. The Patapsco River continued to provide power to generate electricity until 1972, when Hurricane Agnes flooded the power plant. That same year,
2700-400: The tail of formed yarn that is continually being drawn out of the chamber. Other methods of break spinning use needles and electrostatic forces. This method has replaced the older methods of ring and mule spinning. It is also easily adapted for artificial fibres . The spinning machines takes the roving, thins it and twists it, creating yarn which it winds onto a bobbin. In mule spinning
2754-399: The textile industry. People often use cotton clothing and accessories because of comfort, not limited to different weathers. There are many variable processes available at the spinning and fabric-forming stages coupled with the complexities of the finishing and colouration processes to the production of a wide range of products. Textile manufacturing in the modern era is an evolved form of
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#17327937847902808-431: The thread round and smooth and bright. Only the better qualities of yarn are gassed, like the kinds used for voiles, poplins, venetians, gabardines, Egyptian cottons, etc. The thread loses around 5-8% of its weight if it's gassed. The gassed yarn is darker in shade afterwards, but should not be scorched. The weaving process uses a loom . The lengthwise threads are known as the warp , and the crosswise threads are known as
2862-4904: Was grown and winters did not require significant heating costs. Finally, the Great Depression acted as a catalyst that sent several struggling New England firms into bankruptcy. Ansonia , Bridgeport , Bristol , Collinsville , Danbury , Derby , East Windsor , Enfield , Glastonbury , Hartford , Killingly , Madison , Manchester , Meriden , Middletown , Milford , Naugatuck , New Britain , New Haven , New London , Norwich , Putnam , Sandy Hook , Seymour , Shelton , Torrington , Vernon , Waterbury , Willimantic , Winchester , Windham , Windsor Locks Anson , Auburn , Augusta , Baileyville , Biddeford , Brunswick , Chisholm , Corinna , Lewiston , Lincoln , Lisbon Falls , Livermore Falls , Millinocket , Milo , Newport , Old Town , Orono , Pittsfield , Portland , Rumford , Saco , Sanford , Skowhegan , Waterville , Westbrook , Wilton Adams , Amesbury , Athol , Attleboro , Boston , Chicopee , Clinton , Dalton , Dedham , Fall River , Fitchburg , Framingham , Gardner , Grafton , Greenfield , Haverhill , Holyoke , Hopesdale , Hudson , Lawrence , Lowell , Ludlow , Lynn , Maynard , Medford , Merrimac , Methuen , Milford , Millbury , Monson , New Bedford , North Adams , North Andover , Northbridge , Orange , Palmer , Peabody , Pittsfield , Rowley , Russell , Southbridge , Springfield , Taunton , Uxbridge , Waltham , Ware , Webster , Westborough , Winchendon , Worcester Belmont , Berlin , Claremont , Concord , Dover , East Rochester , Franklin , Gonic , Gorham , Greenville , Groveton , Harrisville , Jaffrey , Keene , Laconia , Lancaster , Lebanon , Lincoln , Manchester , Milford , Milton , Nashua , Newmarket , Newport , Penacook , Pittsfield , Rochester , Rollinsford , Somersworth , Suncook , Tilton , Troy , Wilton Allaire , Allentown , Bernards , Boonton , Butler , Camden , Chester , Clinton , Cranbury , Cranford , Dover , Eatontown , Elizabeth , Freehold , Griggstown , Helmetta , Hillsborough , Imlaystown , Jamesburg , Kearny , Kingston , Little Falls , Manville , Medford , Millhurst , Milltown , Millville , New Brunswick , Newark , Orange , Paterson , Perth Amboy , Plainfield , Prallsville , Rahway , Raritan , Roselle Park , Smithville , South Brunswick , Stillwater , Tinton Falls , Trenton , Walnford , Wharton , Woodbridge Albany , Amsterdam , Aurora-on-Cayuga , Beacon , Belmont , Bloomvale , Buffalo , Clinton , Corning , Gardiner , Ithaca , Kingston , Little Falls , Marlboro , Mechanicville , Middletown , Montgomery , New Berlin , New York Mills , Newburgh , Newcomb , Niles , Philmont , Poughkeepsie , Rochester , Rome , Roslyn , Saddle Rock , Schenectady , Schuylerville , Sleepy Hollow , Stony Brook , Sunset Park , Syracuse , Troy , Utica , Victory , Water Mill Bristol , Burrillville , Central Falls , Coventry , Cumberland , Lincoln , Pawtucket , Providence , Slatersville , Valley Falls , West Warwick , Westerly , Woonsocket Bellows Falls , Bethel , Brattleboro , Bridgewater , Burlington , Ludlow , Newport , Springfield , Vergennes , Winooski Biron (Biron Mill) Fairfax (Fairfax Mill and Fair View Mill), Lanett (Lanett Mill), Langdale (Langdale Mill), Sylacauga (Avondale Mill), Opelika (Opelika Mill), River View (Riverdale Mill), Shawmut (Shawmut Mill), Valley (Carter/Lanier Mill) Amity , Beirne , Calion , Crossett , Delight , Dierks , Glenwood , Jones Mill , Malvern , Mountain Pine Bibb City , Cabbagetown , Chicopee , Hogansville , New Holland , New Manchester Ellicott City , Jerusalem , Oella , Owings Mills , Savage Alamance , Altamahaw , Bellemont , Burlington , Bynum , Canton , Caroleen , Carolina , Carrboro , Cliffside , Coleridge , Concord , Cooleemee , Cramerton , Drexel , Eden , Edgemont (East Durham) , Enka , Falls , Franklinville , Glen Raven , Glencoe , Hanes , Haw River , Henrietta , High Falls , High Shoals , Hildebran , Hope Mills , Kannapolis , Long Shoals , Mayodan , McAdenville , Mooresville , Mount Holly , Oakdale , Ramseur , Rhodhiss , Riegelwood , Roanoke Rapids , Sawmills , Saxapahaw , Spencer Mountain , Swepsonville , West Durham , West Hillsborough Cateechee , Central , Cherokee Falls , Columbia (Olympia and Granby Mills), Fort Mill , Graniteville , Great Falls , Inman , Joanna , La France , Lockhart , Lyman , Newry , Pacolet Mills , Pelzer , Piedmont , Slater , Startex , Ware Shoals , Watts Mills , Whitmire Textile manufacturing Textile manufacturing or textile engineering
2916-637: Was not the predominant industry. For example, mining was a key industry in Wigan and Leigh in Greater Manchester, and in Ossett in Yorkshire. On his tour of northern England in 1849, Scottish publisher Angus Reach said: In general, these towns wear a monotonous sameness of aspect, physical and moral ... In fact, the social condition of the different town populations is almost as much alike as
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