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29-522: Etymologically, okrug literally means ' circuit ', derived from Proto-Slavic * okrǫgъ , in turn from * ob- "around" + * krǫgъ "circle". In meaning, the word is similar to the German term Bezirk or Kreis (' district ') and the French word arrondissement ; all of which refer to something "encircled" or "surrounded". In Bulgaria , okrag s are the abolished primary unit of

58-562: A legal and governmental system borrowed from the Chinese. Though these units did not survive as administrative structures beyond the Muromachi period (1336–1573), they did remain important geographical entities until the 19th century. The seven circuits spread over the islands of Honshū , Shikoku , and Kyūshū : In the mid-19th century, the northern island of Ezo was settled, and renamed Hokkaidō ( 北海道 , "North Sea Circuit") . It

87-534: A new truck assembly plant, that was inaugurated on 19 January 2009, with a yearly capacity of 10,000 Volvo and 5,000 Renault trucks . On 12 December 2007, PSA Peugeot Citroën announced its decision to build a new assembly plant in Kaluga. The city is served by the Grabtsevo Airport . Since 1899, there has been a railway connection between Kaluga and Moscow. Public transportation is represented by

116-578: Is a city and the administrative center of Kaluga Oblast , Russia. It stands on the Oka River 150 kilometers (93 mi) southwest of Moscow . Its population was 337,058 at the 2021 census. Kaluga's most famous resident, the space travel pioneer Konstantin Tsiolkovsky , worked there as a school teacher from 1892 to 1935. The Tsiolkovsky State Museum of the History of Cosmonautics in Kaluga

145-587: Is also used to describe a type of a municipal formation , the municipal urban okrug—a municipal urban settlement not incorporated into a municipal district. The Republic of Serbia is divided into twenty-nine okrugs as well as the City of Belgrade . The term okrug in Serbia is often translated as either district or county . Circuit (administrative division) A circuit ( Chinese : 道 ; pinyin : dào or Chinese : 路 ; pinyin : lù )

174-464: Is currently the only prefecture of Japan named with the dō (circuit) suffix. Since the late 10th century, the do ("province") has been the primary administrative division in Korea . See Eight Provinces , Provinces of Korea , Subdivisions of South Korea and Administrative divisions of North Korea for details. Kaluga Kaluga ( Russian : Калу́га , IPA: [kɐˈɫuɡə] )

203-483: Is dedicated to his theoretical achievements and to their practical implementations for modern space research, hence the motto on the city's coat of arms : Колыбель Космонавтики , Kolybélʹ kosmonávtiki (" The Cradle of Space-Exploration "). Kaluga, founded in the mid-14th century as a border fortress on the southwestern borders of the Grand Duchy of Moscow , first appears in the historical record in chronicles in

232-540: The Han dynasty and were used as a lower-tier administrative division, comparable to the county ( simplified Chinese : 县 ; traditional Chinese : 縣 ; pinyin : xiàn , also translated as "districts"). They were used only in the fringes of the empire, which were either inhabited primarily by non-Han Chinese peoples or too geographically isolated from the rest of the Han centers of power. The system fell into disuse after

261-785: The Kaluga drama theatre opened its first theatrical season, established with the direct participation of the Governor-General Mikhail Krechetnikov . Kaluga is connected to Moscow by a railway line and by the ancient roadway, the Kaluga Road (now partly within Moscow (as the Old Kaluga Highway), partly the A101 road ). This road offered Napoleon his favored escape route from the Moscow trap in

290-563: The Republic of China era, circuits still existed as high-level, though not top-level, administrative divisions such as Qiongya Circuit (now Hainan province). After the Nationalists had successfully reunite China in 1928, all circuits were replaced with committees or simply abandoned. In 1932, administrative circuits ( Chinese : 行政督察區 ; pinyin : xíngzhèng dūchá qū ) were reintroduced and lasted until 1949. In 1949, after

319-619: The trolleybuses , buses , and marshrutkas (routed taxis). Kaluga has a humid temperate continental ( Köppen climate classification : Dfb ), with warm and humid summers; and long, cold and snowy winters. Winter extreme records can be as low as −45 °C (−49 °F), while summer heat may reach up +40 °C (104 °F), but normal variation is between −5 °C (23 °F) and −20 °C (−4 °F) during winter and between 15 °C (59 °F) and 30 °C (86 °F) during summer in Kaluga. "www.meteoinfo.ru" . Retrieved 3 September 2012 . Kaluga's most famous resident

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348-669: The 14th century as Koluga ; the name comes from Old Russian kaluga is "bog, quagmire". During the period of Tartar raids it was the western end of the Oka bank defense line. The Great stand on the Ugra River was fought just to the west. In the Middle Ages Kaluga was a minor settlement owned by the Princes Vorotynsky . The ancestral home of these princes lies southwest of the modern city. On 19 January 1777,

377-527: The 1920s, okrugs were administrative districts in Cossack hosts such as the Don Cossacks . Inherited from Imperial Russia, in the 1920s, okrugs were administrative divisions of several other primary divisions such as oblasts , krais , and others. For some time in the 1920s they also served as the primary unit upon the abolishment of guberniyas and were divided into raions . On 30 July 1930 most of

406-604: The Georgian princess Thecla (1834–1835), and the Avar leader Imam Shamil (1859–1868). The German army briefly occupied Kaluga during the climactic Battle of Moscow , as part of Operation Barbarossa . The city was under full or partial German occupation from October 12 to December 30, 1941. In 1944, the Soviet Government used its local military buildings to intern hundreds of Polish prisoners of war — soldiers of

435-509: The Polish underground Home Army — whom the advancing Soviet front had arrested in the area around Vilnius . As of the 2021 Census , the ethnic composition of Kaluga was: Kaluga is the administrative center of the oblast . Within the framework of administrative divisions , it is, together with seventy-two rural localities , incorporated as the City of Kaluga —an administrative unit with

464-605: The Russian automotive industry , with a number of foreign companies opening assembly plants in the area: On 28 November 2007, Volkswagen Group opened a new assembly plant in Kaluga, which further expanded by 2009. The investment has reached more than 500 million Euro. As of 2014 the plant assembled the Volkswagen Passat , Škoda Fabia and Škoda Rapid . On 15 October 2007, the Volvo Group broke ground on

493-476: The administrative division and implied "districts" or "counties". They existed in the postwar Bulgaria between 1946 and 1987 and corresponded approximately to today's oblasts . As historical administrative subdivisions of Poland , okręgi existed in the later part of the Congress Poland period, from 1842, when the name was applied to the former powiats (the name powiat being transferred to

522-493: The collapse of the Western Jin dynasty . The administrative division was revived in 627 when Tang Emperor Taizong made it the highest level administrative division and subdivided China into ten circuits. These were originally meant to be purely geographic and not administrative. Emperor Xuanzong added a further five, and slowly the circuits strengthened their own power until they became powerful regional forces that tore

551-632: The country apart during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . During the Song and Jin dynasties, circuits (“dao”) were renamed lu ( 路 ), both of which mean "road" or "path". Dao were revived during the Yuan dynasty . Circuits were demoted to the second level after the Yuan dynasty established provinces at the very top and remained there for the next several centuries. The Yuan dynasty also had lu (sometimes translated as "route"), but it

580-604: The fall of 1812. But General Kutuzov repelled Napoleon's advances in this direction and forced the retreating French army onto the old Smolensk road, previously devastated by the French during their invasion of Russia. On several occasions during the Russian Empire Kaluga was the residence of political exiles and prisoners such as the last Crimean khan Şahin Giray (1786), the Kyrgyz sultan Arigazi-Abdul-Aziz (1828),

609-561: The federal subjects they had been merged into: Okrug is also used to describe the administrative divisions of the two " federal cities " in Russia: In the federal city of Sevastopol , municipal okrugs are a type of municipal formation. In Tver Oblast , the term okrug also denotes a type of an administrative division which is equal in status to that of the districts. Furthermore, the designation okrug denotes several selsoviet -level administrative divisions: In some cities,

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638-615: The former obwody ). See: subdivisions of Congress Poland . Okręgi were also created temporarily from 1945 to 1946, in the areas annexed to Poland from Germany as a result of the Soviet military advance. An okręg was then subdivided into obwody . These okręgi were later replaced by voivodeships , and the obwody by powiat s. Okrugs were one of the several types of administrative division for oblasts and selected governorates in Imperial Russia . Until

667-603: The founding of the People's Republic of China , all of the administrative circuits were converted into zhuanqu ( Chinese : 专区 ; pinyin : zhuānqū ) in 1949 and renamed diqu ( Chinese : 地区 ; pinyin : dìqū ; lit. 'prefecture') in the 1970s. During the Asuka period (538–710), Japan was organized into five provinces and seven circuits, known as the Gokishichidō (5 ki 7 dō), as part of

696-722: The okrugs were abolished. The remaining okrugs were phased out in the Russian SFSR during 1930–1946, although they were retained in Zakarpattia Oblast of the Ukrainian SSR in a status equivalent to that of a raion. National okrugs were first created in the Mountain ASSR of the Russian SFSR in 1921 as units of the Soviet autonomy and additional national okrugs were created in the Russian SFSR for

725-469: The peoples of the north and Caucasus region. In 1977, all national okrugs were renamed autonomous okrugs. In the present-day Russian Federation , the term okrug is either translated as district or rendered directly as okrug , and is used to describe the following types of divisions: After the series of mergers in 2005–2008, several autonomous okrugs of Russia lost their federal subject status and are now considered to be administrative territories within

754-523: The status equal to that of the districts . As a municipal division , the City of Kaluga, together with one rural locality in Ferzikovsky District (the selo of Novozhdamirovo ), is incorporated as Kaluga Urban Okrug . The Kaluga Turbine Plant is located here as is Kaluga Machine Works , which manufactures track machines for railways. In recent years, Kaluga has become one center of

783-531: The term okrug is used to refer to the administrative divisions of those cities. Administrative okrugs are such divisions in the cities of Murmansk , Omsk , and Tyumen ; city okrugs are used in Krasnodar ; municipal okrugs are the divisions of Nazran ; okrugs exist in Belgorod , Kaluga , Kursk , and Novorossiysk ; and territorial okrugs are the divisions of Arkhangelsk and Lipetsk . The term okrug

812-594: Was a historical political division of China and is a historical and modern administrative unit in Japan . The primary level of administrative division of Korea under the Joseon and in modern North and South Korea employs the same Chinese character as the Chinese and Japanese divisions but, because of its relatively greater importance, is usually translated as province instead. Circuits originated in China during

841-576: Was simply the Chinese word used for the Mongolian administrative unit, the cölge . The Yuan lu had little to do with the circuits ( lu ) in the Song and Jin dynasties and were closer in size to prefectures. Under the Qing , they were overseen by a circuit intendant or tao-tai ( Chinese : 道臺 ; pinyin : dàotái ). The circuit intendant of Shanghai was particularly influential. During

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