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62-615: Most Opatan towns were situated in river valleys and had an economy based on irrigated agriculture. They spoke the Opata language , a Uto-Aztecan language , that is now extinct. In the 16th century, at the time of Spanish contact, the Opata were the most numerous people in Sonora. Some sources indicate that as an identifiable ethnic group, the Opata are now extinct, or nearly extinct. Today, some people identify as Opatas. The Opata language

124-766: A fermented maize atole beverage known as tanori , which was normally drunk during certain ceremonies and celebrations. Expert preparers of that beverage often took on the second name of Tanori . The statelet era of Opata history endured from 1350 to 1550. With decreasing population due to European diseases, Opatan societies in the 17th century became smaller and less complex. Opata women were skilled weavers and wove dyed and full-length colorful cotton fiber dresses. Men generally dressed more scantily in skirts made of hide , but also wore serapes (shawls) in cold weather. Footwear consisted of sandals made from hide. Women often wore only hide skirts similar to those of men during warm weather, and both sexes often went about nude during

186-414: A broader floodplain may result. Deposition dominates over erosion. A typical river basin or drainage basin will incorporate each of these different types of valleys. Some sections of a stream or river valleys may have vertically incised their course to such an extent that the valley they occupy is best described as a gorge , ravine , or canyon . Rapid down-cutting may result from localized uplift of

248-535: A cape, and his loins were covered with a cloth, as was the custom of that nation. On the wrist of his left hand, which holds the bow when the hand pulls the cord to send the arrow, he wore a very becoming marten skin". The Opata fiercely resisted the expedition of Spanish explorer Francisco Ibarra in 1565. For several decades, the Spanish made no further attempts to conquer the Opatería. However, during that period,

310-619: A church, while all of the Ahome and a large part of the Suaqui had been baptized. The two tribes together numbered about 10,000. In 1613, being then superior of the Sinaloa district, he was instrumental in procuring the submission of a hostile mountain tribe . In 1617, in company with other Jesuit missionaries whom he had brought from Mexico City , he began the conversion of the powerful and largely hostile Yaqui tribe of Sonora , whose population

372-533: A cirque glacier. During glacial periods, for example, the Pleistocene ice ages, it is in these locations that glaciers initially form and then, as the ice age proceeds, extend downhill through valleys that have previously been shaped by water rather than ice. Abrasion by rock material embedded within the moving glacial ice causes the widening and deepening of the valley to produce the characteristic U or trough shape with relatively steep, even vertical sides and

434-603: A commonly reported fertility rite was a round dance known as the "Mariachi." At the time of the first contact with the Spanish in the 16th century, there were multiple sub-groups of Opata people. However, by the mid-17th century, the Spanish identified only three Opatan groups. The largest was the Eudeve (eh-oo-deh-veh), whose ancient villages and current towns encompass the western portions of traditional Opata territory. The Eudeve also referred to themselves as Deve. Both names mean "people" in their language. The second largest group

496-618: A more dispersed people, living in more rugged terrain, and depended more on hunting and gathering than the other Opata groups. The Opatas traded with other Indian nations (Concho, Zuni ) to purchase turquoise in exchange for corn and cotton blankets. Animal skins and roots were acquired through trade with the Jano, Suma (mixed with Apache), Jumano (probably mixed with Apache and Comanche), Jocome, and Manso . Other items were traded with Yaqui , Mayo , and Seri , with whom they shared some fishing and hunting areas. Sisibotari ("The Great Lord")

558-594: A narrow valley with steep sides. Gill is used to describe a ravine containing a mountain stream in Cumbria and the Pennines . The term combe (also encountered as coombe ) is widespread in southern England and describes a short valley set into a hillside. Other terms for small valleys such as hope, dean, slade, slack and bottom are commonly encountered in place-names in various parts of England but are no longer in general use as synonyms for valley . The term vale

620-432: A relatively flat bottom. Interlocking spurs associated with the development of river valleys are preferentially eroded to produce truncated spurs , typical of glaciated mountain landscapes. The upper end of the trough below the ice-contributing cirques may be a trough-end . Valley steps (or 'rock steps') can result from differing erosion rates due to both the nature of the bedrock (hardness and jointing for example) and

682-528: A ruling class, slavery, irrigation agriculture, and emphasis on trade. They featured a central town, functioning as the seat of government, of at least 200 two and three-story adobe houses and a population of six per house or 1,200 or more. In the countryside for several miles in every direction from the central town were satellite communities: hamlets of 9 to 25 houses and "rancherías" of less than 9 houses. The Opata depended upon agriculture for much of their subsistence. Maize , beans , squash , and cotton were

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744-516: A ship headed for Baja California. Before the ship reached the peninsula, it was stopped by Republican forces. Tanori was captured and executed. The retribution of the Mexicans against the Opata after the defeat of the French occupation resulted in the loss of nearly all of their remaining lands and the end of their resistance to Mexican rule. In 1902, American anthropologist Ales Hrdlicka , estimated

806-531: A single people to oppose the Spanish and Mexicans. Fierce battles with the Apache took a heavy toll on the Opata. Most of the Opata supported the French during their brief rule of Mexico from 1864 to 1867, as did most Sonoran Indians. An Opata, Refugio Tanori, became a general in the military forces supporting the Imperial rule of Maximilian I . When Tanori's forces were defeated, he fled to Guaymas, and boarded

868-465: A slower rate than that of the main valley floor; thus the difference in the two valleys' depth increases over time. The tributary valley, composed of more resistant rock, then hangs over the main valley. Trough-shaped valleys also form in regions of heavy topographic denudation . By contrast with glacial U-shaped valleys, there is less downward and sideways erosion. The severe downslope denudation results in gently sloping valley sides; their transition to

930-427: A valley between its sides is referred to as the valley floor. The valley floor is typically formed by river sediments and may have fluvial terraces . The development of a river valley is affected by the character of the bedrock over which the river or stream flows, the elevational difference between its top and bottom, and indeed the climate. Typically the flow will increase downstream and the gradient will decrease. In

992-510: A variety of transitional forms between V-, U- and plain valleys can form. The floor or bottom of these valleys can be broad or narrow, but all valleys have a shoulder. The broader a mountain valley, the lower its shoulders are located in most cases. An important exception is canyons where the shoulder almost is near the top of the valley's slope. In the Alps – e.g. the Tyrolean Inn valley –

1054-670: A watercourse only rarely. In areas of limestone bedrock , dry valleys may also result from drainage now taking place underground rather than at the surface. Rift valleys arise principally from earth movements , rather than erosion. Many different types of valleys are described by geographers, using terms that may be global in use or else applied only locally. Valleys may arise through several different processes. Most commonly, they arise from erosion over long periods by moving water and are known as river valleys. Typically small valleys containing streams feed into larger valleys which in turn feed into larger valleys again, eventually reaching

1116-405: Is a tributary valley that is higher than the main valley. They are most commonly associated with U-shaped valleys, where a tributary glacier flows into a glacier of larger volume. The main glacier erodes a deep U-shaped valley with nearly vertical sides, while the tributary glacier, with a smaller volume of ice, makes a shallower U-shaped valley. Since the surfaces of the glaciers were originally at

1178-625: Is an elongated low area often running between hills or mountains and typically containing a river or stream running from one end to the other. Most valleys are formed by erosion of the land surface by rivers or streams over a very long period. Some valleys are formed through erosion by glacial ice . These glaciers may remain present in valleys in high mountains or polar areas. At lower latitudes and altitudes, these glacially formed valleys may have been created or enlarged during ice ages but now are ice-free and occupied by streams or rivers. In desert areas, valleys may be entirely dry or carry

1240-501: Is only 50 meters (160 ft) deep while the main fjord is around 1,300 meters (4,300 ft) at the same point. Glaciated terrain is not the only site of hanging streams and valleys. Hanging valleys are also simply the product of varying rates of erosion of the main valley and the tributary valleys. The varying rates of erosion are associated with the composition of the adjacent rocks in the different valley locations. The tributary valleys are eroded and deepened by glaciers or erosion at

1302-512: Is still exercised during Easter week in most towns and villages in Opata Country. The rite includes the wearing of masks and the use of traditional Opatan instruments during the procession which include hand-held gourd rattles, bands of small ankle rattles, and hand-held drums. Masks often include traditional ones carved from Cottonwood , depicting various painted human and animal-like facial figures. River valleys A valley

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1364-488: Is the word cwm borrowed from Welsh . The word dale occurs widely in place names in the north of England and, to a lesser extent, in southern Scotland. As a generic name for a type of valley, the term typically refers to a wide valley, though there are many much smaller stream valleys within the Yorkshire Dales which are named "(specific name) Dale". Clough is a word in common use in northern England for

1426-629: Is used in England and Wales to describe a wide river valley, usually with a particularly wide flood plain or flat valley bottom. In Southern England, vales commonly occur between the outcrops of different relatively erosion-resistant rock formations, where less resistant rock, often claystone has been eroded. An example is the Vale of White Horse in Oxfordshire. Some of the first human complex societies originated in river valleys, such as that of

1488-581: The Latin terms for 'valley, 'gorge' and 'ditch' respectively. The German term ' rille ' or Latin term 'rima' (signifying 'cleft') is used for certain other elongate depressions on the Moon. See also: Andr%C3%A9s P%C3%A9rez de Ribas Andrés Pérez De Ribas (born at Cordova , Spain , 1576; died in Mexico , 26 March 1655) was a Spanish Jesuit missionary, and historian of north-western Mexico. He joined

1550-504: The Nile , Tigris-Euphrates , Indus , Ganges , Yangtze , Yellow River , Mississippi , and arguably the Amazon . In prehistory , the rivers were used as a source of fresh water and food (fish and game), as well as a place to wash and a sewer. The proximity of water moderated temperature extremes and provided a source for irrigation , stimulating the development of agriculture . Most of

1612-668: The first civilizations developed from these river valley communities. Siting of settlements within valleys is influenced by many factors, including the need to avoid flooding and the location of river crossing points. Numerous elongate depressions have been identified on the surface of Mars , Venus , the Moon , and other planets and their satellites and are known as valles (singular: 'vallis'). Deeper valleys with steeper sides (akin to canyons) on certain of these bodies are known as chasmata (singular: 'chasma'). Long narrow depressions are referred to as fossae (singular: 'fossa'). These are

1674-534: The southwestern United States , particularly in Arizona, where their ancestors migrated to work in agriculture and mining. At the time of first contact with the Spanish, the Opata may have been the most numerous and culturally complex people living in Oasis America , comprising the desert regions of northern Mexico and the southwestern United States. The towns of the Opata were found in the broad valleys of

1736-408: The "Opata" referred to themselves collectively in their own language as "Joylraua." However, according to Opata oral traditionalists, Joylraua was the name of an ancient Eudeve village named after an honored chieftain of that village. In the 16th century, Ópata may have entered Pima territory what is now Sonora from the northeast. At the time of first contact with the Spanish in the mid-16th century,

1798-497: The Eudeve dialect. Field anthropologist Campbell Pennington researched and published much information on the Opatan peoples and their dialects during the latter part of their history. As the three Opatan groups lived adjacent to one another, Franciscan missionaries had by about 1800 lumped them together into one group they called "Opata." Several Franciscan missionary records and subsequent anthropological accounts state that "Opata"

1860-460: The Jesuit missions of Mexico published at Madrid in 1645, one year after its completion, under the title: Historia de los Triunfos de Nuestra Santa Fe entre gentes las más bárbaras ... conseguidos por los soldados de la milicia de Ia Compañía de Jesús en las misiones de la Provincia de Nueva-España . Of this work, Hubert Howe Bancroft says: [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from

1922-564: The Jova dialect, were extinct by 1950. During the 1993 census in Mexico, 12 persons claimed to be "Opata" speakers, but this is widely considered to be an error in the census count. Professor Manuel García Madrid, an Opata from Sonora, has published a linguistic text on the Tehuima dialect. American linguistic anthropologist David L. Shaul has done extensive research and published much material on

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1984-460: The Jova lived in Chihuahua. These people were still independent, and not under Spanish rule, as late as 1678. During the 18th century, the Jova intermarried with neighboring Eudeves and they merged into one single group. At that point the Jova no longer could be identified as a distinct indigenous ethnic group. According to the "Noticias Estadisticas del Estado de Sonora" by D. Francisco Velasco

2046-477: The Opata Nation is subdued in: Some people in Sonora and southern Arizona identify as being of Ópata descent today. Very few Ópata traditions are exercised today, and their character is generally mestizaje (mainline Mexican mestizo) as opposed to a traditional indigenous character and lifestyle. However, the ancient Opatan spring procession rite known today as the fariseo (with some Catholicism mixed in)

2108-456: The Opata, forcing the survivors to surrender. The Spanish executed the Opata leaders, including Dorame, a Eudeve, whose surname is still common in the Opatería region of Sonora. Revolts continued after Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821. Another Opata leader, Dolores Gutiérrez, was executed in 1833 by the Mexicans for his involvement in a revolt. Although the Opata had formidable reputations as warriors, they were never able to unite as

2170-724: The Opatería was a land of "statelets," a number of independent, agricultural towns scattered up and down the inland valleys of the Sonora River (statelets: Corazones, Señora, and Guaraspi), Moctezuma River (statelets: Cumupa, Batuco, and Pinebaroca), Bavispe River (statelet: Sahuaripa), and Aros River (statelets: Paibatubo, and Oera). There were at least five Opata statelets, and four others which were either Opata, Pima , or mixed. The statelets had populations of several thousand people, and consisted of towns surrounded by dispersed dwellings and irrigated cropland. The Opata grew corn , squash , beans , and cotton . The Jova, however, were

2232-524: The Scandinavian ice sheet during the various ice ages advanced slightly uphill against the lie of the land. As a result, its meltwaters flowed parallel to the ice margin to reach the North Sea basin, forming huge, flat valleys known as Urstromtäler . Unlike the other forms of glacial valleys, these were formed by glacial meltwaters. Depending on the topography , the rock types , and the climate ,

2294-591: The Society of Jesus in 1602, coming at once to America, and finishing his novitiate in Mexico in 1604. In the same year he was sent to undertake the Christianization of the Ahome and Suaqui of northern Sinaloa , of whom the former were friendly and anxious for teachers, while the latter had just been brought to submission after a hard campaign. Within a year he had both tribes gathered into towns, each with

2356-511: The actual valley bottom is unclear. Trough-shaped valleys occur mainly in periglacial regions and in tropical regions of variable wetness. Both climates are dominated by heavy denudation. Box valleys have wide, relatively level floors and steep sides. They are common in periglacial areas and occur in mid-latitudes, but also occur in tropical and arid regions. Rift valleys, such as the Albertine Rift and Gregory Rift are formed by

2418-524: The effort to convert Ópatas to Roman Catholicism. The Opata slowly became Spanish allies of convenience. Opata soldiers joined the Spanish in campaigns against their common enemy the Apache . By 1688, the Spanish established 22 missions among the Ópata. The Ópata assimilated into Spanish society, far more than the Tarahumara , Mayo , or Yaqui did. By 1800, the Opata were mostly followers of Christianity, commonly spoke Spanish , and were largely under

2480-612: The expansion of the Earth 's crust due to tectonic activity beneath the Earth's surface. There are many terms used for different sorts of valleys. They include: Similar geographical features such as gullies , chines , and kloofs , are not usually referred to as valleys. The terms corrie , glen , and strath are all Anglicisations of Gaelic terms and are commonly encountered in place-names in Scotland and other areas where Gaelic

2542-719: The five north–south trending rivers of northern and eastern Sonora. The rivers, west to east, are the San Miguel, Sonora, Moctezuma, and the two upper tributaries of the Yaqui, the Bavispe and the Arcos. The Opata were not members of a single political entity, but rather organized into a number of "statelets" – several of which may have also been populated by their neighbors to the south, the Pima Bajo . The statelets were characterized by

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2604-443: The flow slower and both erosion and deposition may take place. More lateral erosion takes place in the middle section of a river's course, as strong currents on the outside of its curve erode the bank. Conversely, deposition may take place on the inside of curves where the current is much slacker, the process leading to the river assuming a meandering character. In the lower valley, gradients are lowest, meanders may be much broader and

2666-521: The higher figure. The Opatas were the most numerous of the several indigenous groups in the state of Sonora, and the river valleys of their territory were densely populated with their permanent villages. Disease, war, and famine reduced the aboriginal population of Opatería to 6,000 by 1764. Today, there are no known full-blooded Opatas left, but mestizo descendants still make up the majority population of traditional Opata territory. Many Opata descendants reside in other parts of Sonora , greater Mexico , and

2728-893: The hot season. Necklaces and other adornments made from hide, stone, bone, shell, and feathers were worn. Dwellings consisted of thatched huts and small houses made of adobe and zacate with thatched roofs. During warm, dry seasons, semi- subterranean dwellings known as a hu'uki were also used. (In addition, hu'ukis were used as sweat lodges , and small ones were constructed for the purpose of storing legumes to keep them cool and fresh longer). Homosexuality and transgenderism were not taboo in traditional Opatan society. Same-sex couples existed in some villages, including effeminate males who dressed and lived as women. There were plural marriages of village leaders where they took their sisters-in-law as spouses or concubines. Fertility rites also took place. Described as "obscene" in Spanish priests' written accounts (see, for example Cañas, 1730),

2790-427: The land surface or rejuvenation of the watercourse as a result for example of a reduction in the base level to which the river is eroded, e.g. lowered global sea level during an ice age . Such rejuvenation may also result in the production of river terraces . There are various forms of valleys associated with glaciation. True glacial valleys are those that have been cut by a glacier which may or may not still occupy

2852-519: The number of full-blood Opatas at 500 to 600. Another anthropologist, Carl Lumholtz , commented that the Opatas had "lost their language, religion, and traditions, dress like the Mexicans, and in appearance are in no way distinguishable from the laboring class of Mexico with which they are thoroughly merged through frequent intermarriage." Population estimates for Opatería at the time of Spanish contact range from 20,000 to 70,000, with most estimates nearer

2914-463: The ocean or perhaps an internal drainage basin . In polar areas and at high altitudes, valleys may be eroded by glaciers ; these typically have a U-shaped profile in cross-section, in contrast to river valleys, which tend to have a V-shaped profile. Other valleys may arise principally through tectonic processes such as rifting . All three processes can contribute to the development of a valley over geological time. The flat (or relatively flat) portion of

2976-436: The power of the moving ice. In places, a rock basin may be excavated which may later be filled with water to form a ribbon lake or else by sediments. Such features are found in coastal areas as fjords . The shape of the valley which results from all of these influences may only become visible upon the recession of the glacier that forms it. A river or stream may remain in the valley; if it is smaller than one would expect given

3038-435: The principal crops. Due to the scarcity and irregularity of rainfall, the Opata practiced canal irrigation as well as dry-land farming techniques. Early Spanish explorers described large and productive fields among the Opata. The Opata also hunted game, especially deer, with bows and arrows , fished in the rivers with spears and nets, and gathered wild foods such as Chenopodium and cactus leaves and fruits. They also produced

3100-494: The rule of the Spanish government. Many Opatans became cowboys on Spanish ranches, or migrated to mining towns to work in the mines. Tension between the Spanish, the Mexicans, and the Opata manifested itself in numerous revolts in the 19th century. In 1820, 300 Opata warriors defeated a Spanish force of 1,000 soldiers and destroyed a mining town near Tonichi . Later, they won another battle at Arivechi , killing more than 30 soldiers. A Spanish force of 2,000 soldiers finally defeated

3162-446: The same elevation , the shallower valley appears to be 'hanging' above the main valley. Often, waterfalls form at or near the outlet of the upper valley. Hanging valleys also occur in fjord systems underwater. The branches of Sognefjord are much shallower than the main fjord. The mouth of Fjærlandsfjord is about 400 meters (1,300 ft) deep while the main fjord nearby is 1,200 meters (3,900 ft) deep. The mouth of Ikjefjord

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3224-550: The shoulders are quite low (100–200 meters above the bottom). Many villages are located here (esp. on the sunny side) because the climate is very mild: even in winter when the valley's floor is filled with fog, these villages are in sunshine . In some stress-tectonic regions of the Rocky Mountains or the Alps (e.g. Salzburg ), the side valleys are parallel to each other, and are hanging . Smaller streams flow into rivers as deep canyons or waterfalls . A hanging valley

3286-849: The size of its valley, it can be considered an example of a misfit stream . Other interesting glacially carved valleys include: A tunnel valley is a large, long, U-shaped valley originally cut under the glacial ice near the margin of continental ice sheets such as that now covering Antarctica and formerly covering portions of all continents during past glacial ages. Such valleys can be up to 100 km (62 mi) long, 4 km (2.5 mi) wide, and 400 m (1,300 ft) deep (its depth may vary along its length). Tunnel valleys were formed by subglacial water erosion . They once served as subglacial drainage pathways carrying large volumes of meltwater. Their cross-sections exhibit steep-sided flanks similar to fjord walls, and their flat bottoms are typical of subglacial glacial erosion. In northern Central Europe,

3348-446: The statelets declined and were replaced by a "ranchería" culture of small settlements and dispersed dwellings. The drastic decline of the Ópata population is likely due to epidemics of introduced European diseases and local diseases. In 1628, Jesuit missionaries established a mission in Opatería and encountered little opposition to their efforts to evangelize, and later, to reorganize Opata society along Spanish lines. Pedro Mendéz led

3410-407: The upper valley, the stream will most effectively erode its bed through corrasion to produce a steep-sided V-shaped valley. The presence of more resistant rock bands, of geological faults , fractures , and folds may determine the course of the stream and result in a twisting course with interlocking spurs . In the middle valley, as numerous streams have coalesced, the valley is typically wider,

3472-407: The valley at the present day. Such valleys may also be known as glacial troughs. They typically have a U-shaped cross-section and are characteristic landforms of mountain areas where glaciation has occurred or continues to take place. The uppermost part of a glacial valley frequently consists of one or more 'armchair-shaped' hollows, or ' cirques ', excavated by the rotational movement downslope of

3534-471: Was a Uto-Aztecan language , related to neighboring languages such as O'odham , Tarahumara , Tepehuan , Yaqui and Mayo , among others. The Eudeve dialect is called Dohema. The Tehuimas spoke Tehuima, and the Jovas spoke Jova. The Eudeve and Tehuima languages were closely related, as "different as Portuguese and Spanish." Jova was a more distinct language. The Ópata language, with the possible exception of

3596-404: Was a respected Jova chieftain known throughout Opata country who lived from the late 16th century to the mid-17th century. He served as a major intermediary between the Opatan peoples and the Spanish, which helped maintain peace between the two peoples during his time. Father Andrés Pérez de Ribas described Sisibotari, "He was handsome and still young, wore a long coat attached at his shoulder like

3658-490: Was borrowed from a Pima Indian word meaning "enemy," the name allegedly given by the northern and southern Piman peoples to their Opatan neighbors. However, according to Opatan oral traditionalists, "Opata" is the name some Tehuima villages gave to themselves and means "iron people," since iron ore was abundant in Opata territory, and Opata spear tips were made from iron ore. Thus, those Tehuima people were also known as "the iron spear people." Some anthropological texts state that

3720-548: Was estimated at 30,000. Within a few years, most of them had been gathered into eight mission towns. In 1620 Ribas was recalled to Mexico to assist in the college. He was ultimately appointed provincial, which post he held for several years. After a visit to Rome in 1643 to take part in the election of a general of the order, he devoted himself chiefly to study and writing until his death. He left numerous works, religious and historical, most of which are still in manuscript, but his reputation as an historian rests upon his history of

3782-658: Was first known as the Ore, but were later called the Tegüima or Tehuima (teh-wee-mah). Their ancient villages and current towns encompass the northeastern and central portion of Opata territory. Tehuima means "river people." The smallest Opatan group was the Ova or Jova (ho-vah). Jova means "water people." They originally inhabited eight villages in the southeastern portion of Opata territory. Some of their villages were Negarachi, Sahuaripa, Teopari, Tutuaca, Xiripa, and Yepomera. A number of

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3844-414: Was once widespread. Strath signifies a wide valley between hills, the floor of which is either level or slopes gently. A glen is a river valley which is steeper and narrower than a strath. A corrie is a basin-shaped hollow in a mountain. Each of these terms also occurs in parts of the world formerly colonized by Britain . Corrie is used more widely by geographers as a synonym for (glacial) cirque , as

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