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162-468: While early ornithology was principally concerned with descriptions and distributions of species, ornithologists today seek answers to very specific questions, often using birds as models to test hypotheses or predictions based on theories. Most modern biological theories apply across life forms, and the number of scientists who identify themselves as "ornithologists" has therefore declined. A wide range of tools and techniques are used in ornithology, both inside

324-412: A basal lamina , the upper layer of the basement membrane , the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying next to the connective tissue in the extracellular matrix secreted by the epithelial cells. There are many different types of epithelium, modified to suit a particular function. In the respiratory tract there is a type of ciliated epithelial lining; in the small intestine there are microvilli on

486-628: A binomial name , categorising them into different genera. However, ornithology did not emerge as a specialised science until the Victorian era—with the popularization of natural history, and the collection of natural objects such as bird eggs and skins. This specialization led to the formation in Britain of the British Ornithologists' Union in 1858. In 1859, the members founded its journal The Ibis . The sudden spurt in ornithology

648-450: A copulatory organ present in most species. The eggs are surrounded by amniotic membranes which prevents them from drying out and are laid on land, or develop internally in some species. The bladder is small as nitrogenous waste is excreted as uric acid . Turtles are notable for their protective shells. They have an inflexible trunk encased in a horny carapace above and a plastron below. These are formed from bony plates embedded in

810-635: A menagerie and sponsored translations of Arabic texts, among which the popular Arabic work known as the Liber Moaminus by an unknown author which was translated into Latin by Theodore of Antioch from Syria in 1240-1241 as the De Scientia Venandi per Aves , and also Michael Scotus (who had removed to Palermo) translated Ibn Sīnā 's Kitāb al-Ḥayawān of 1027 for the Emperor, a commentary and scientific update of Aristotle's work which

972-481: A microscope . Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems. The major anatomy textbook, Gray's Anatomy , has been reorganized from

1134-470: A sessile lifestyle). Most animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues and these animals are also known as eumetazoans . They have an internal digestive chamber, with one or two openings; the gametes are produced in multicellular sex organs, and the zygotes include a blastula stage in their embryonic development . Metazoans do not include the sponges , which have undifferentiated cells. Unlike plant cells , animal cells have neither

1296-402: A "treatise on the heart", with vessels carrying all the body's fluids to or from every member of the body. Ancient Greek anatomy and physiology underwent great changes and advances throughout the early medieval world. Over time, this medical practice expanded due to a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. Phenomenal anatomical observations of

1458-619: A Latin translation of Aristotle's work on animals from Arabic here around 1215, which was disseminated widely and was the first time in a millennium that this foundational text on zoology became available to Europeans. Falconry was popular in the Norman court in Sicily, and a number of works on the subject were written in Palermo . Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen (1194–1250) learned about an falconry during his youth in Sicily and later built up

1620-576: A body mass of 1.21–2.23 kg (2.7–4.9 lb). It has a white face and black head, neck, and upper breast. Its belly is white. The wings and its back are silver-gray with black-and-white bars that look like they are shining when the light reflects on it. During flight, a V-shaped white rump patch and the silver-gray underwing linings are visible. They look similar to Canada Geese but are smaller, have white instead of brown bodies and have smaller beaks. There are three original populations of barnacle geese, with separate breeding and wintering ranges. Since

1782-528: A cell wall nor chloroplasts . Vacuoles, when present, are more in number and much smaller than those in the plant cell. The body tissues are composed of numerous types of cells, including those found in muscles, nerves and skin. Each typically has a cell membrane formed of phospholipids , cytoplasm and a nucleus . All of the different cells of an animal are derived from the embryonic germ layers . Those simpler invertebrates which are formed from two germ layers of ectoderm and endoderm are called diploblastic and

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1944-433: A class of arachnids have four pairs of legs; a body of two segments—a cephalothorax and an abdomen . Spiders have no wings and no antennae. They have mouthparts called chelicerae which are often connected to venom glands as most spiders are venomous. They have a second pair of appendages called pedipalps attached to the cephalothorax. These have similar segmentation to the legs and function as taste and smell organs. At

2106-696: A classification of birds, De Differentiis Avium (around 1572), that was based on structure and habits. Konrad Gesner wrote the Vogelbuch and Icones avium omnium around 1557. Like Gesner, Ulisse Aldrovandi , an encyclopedic naturalist, began a 14-volume natural history with three volumes on birds, entitled ornithologiae hoc est de avibus historiae libri XII , which was published from 1599 to 1603. Aldrovandi showed great interest in plants and animals, and his work included 3000 drawings of fruits, flowers, plants, and animals, published in 363 volumes. His Ornithology alone covers 2000 pages and included such aspects as

2268-552: A coat of glycoproteins . In more advanced animals, many glands are formed of epithelial cells. Muscle cells (myocytes) form the active contractile tissue of the body. Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle is formed of contractile filaments and is separated into three main types; smooth muscle , skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle . Smooth muscle has no striations when examined microscopically. It contracts slowly but maintains contractibility over

2430-463: A few species have no limbs and resemble snakes. Lizards have moveable eyelids, eardrums are present and some species have a central parietal eye. Snakes are closely related to lizards, having branched off from a common ancestral lineage during the Cretaceous period, and they share many of the same features. The skeleton consists of a skull, a hyoid bone, spine and ribs though a few species retain

2592-513: A high metabolic rate , a light skeletal system and powerful muscles . The long bones are thin, hollow and very light. Air sac extensions from the lungs occupy the centre of some bones. The sternum is wide and usually has a keel and the caudal vertebrae are fused. There are no teeth and the narrow jaws are adapted into a horn-covered beak. The eyes are relatively large, particularly in nocturnal species such as owls. They face forwards in predators and sideways in ducks. The feathers are outgrowths of

2754-746: A mammal. Humans have a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen ), two arms and hands, and two legs and feet. Generally, students of certain biological sciences , paramedics , prosthetists and orthotists, physiotherapists , occupational therapists , nurses , podiatrists , and medical students learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures and tutorials and in addition, medical students generally also learn gross anatomy through practical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers . The study of microscopic anatomy (or histology ) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations (or slides) under

2916-447: A model for many studies in non-mammalian immunology. Studies in bird behaviour include the use of tamed and trained birds in captivity. Studies on bird intelligence and song learning have been largely laboratory-based. Field researchers may make use of a wide range of techniques such as the use of dummy owls to elicit mobbing behaviour, and dummy males or the use of call playback to elicit territorial behaviour and thereby to establish

3078-591: A policy of the British Ornithologists' Union to keep out women. Unlike the RSPB, which was primarily conservation oriented, the British Trust for Ornithology was started in 1933 with the aim of advancing ornithological research. Members were often involved in collaborative ornithological projects. These projects have resulted in atlases which detail the distribution of bird species across Britain. In Canada, citizen scientist Elsie Cassels studied migratory birds and

3240-420: A pump action in which air is first drawn into the buccopharyngeal region through the nostrils. These are then closed and the air is forced into the lungs by contraction of the throat. They supplement this with gas exchange through the skin which needs to be kept moist. In frogs the pelvic girdle is robust and the hind legs are much longer and stronger than the forelimbs. The feet have four or five digits and

3402-585: A resource for taxonomic studies. The use of bird skins to document species has been a standard part of systematic ornithology. Bird skins are prepared by retaining the key bones of the wings, legs, and skull along with the skin and feathers. In the past, they were treated with arsenic to prevent fungal and insect (mostly dermestid ) attack. Arsenic, being toxic, was replaced by less-toxic borax . Amateur and professional collectors became familiar with these skinning techniques and started sending in their skins to museums, some of them from distant locations. This led to

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3564-405: A secret and most wonderful process of alimentation. I have frequently seen, with my own eyes, more than a thousand of these small bodies of birds, hanging down on the sea-shore from one piece of timber, enclosed in their shells, and already formed. They do not breed and lay eggs like other birds, nor do they ever hatch any eggs, nor do they seem to build nests in any corner of the earth. The legend

3726-543: A skeleton to support or protect the body. An exoskeleton is a thickened, rigid cuticle which is stiffened by mineralization , as in crustaceans or by the cross-linking of its proteins as in insects . An endoskeleton is internal and present in all developed animals, as well as in many of those less developed. Epithelial tissue is composed of closely packed cells, bound to each other by cell adhesion molecules , with little intercellular space. Epithelial cells can be squamous (flat), cuboidal or columnar and rest on

3888-401: A spurt of bird studies in this area. The study of imprinting behaviour in ducks and geese by Konrad Lorenz and the studies of instinct in herring gulls by Nicolaas Tinbergen led to the establishment of the field of ethology . The study of learning became an area of interest and the study of bird songs has been a model for studies in neuroethology. The study of hormones and physiology in

4050-497: A systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching methods. A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required by physicians, especially surgeons and doctors working in some diagnostic specialties, such as histopathology and radiology . Academic anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools or teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching anatomy, and research into certain systems, organs, tissues or cells. Invertebrates constitute

4212-941: A tract on falconry, and introduced the words "incubation" and "oviparous" into the English language. Towards the late 18th century, Mathurin Jacques Brisson (1723–1806) and Comte de Buffon (1707–1788) began new works on birds. Brisson produced a six-volume work Ornithologie in 1760 and Buffon's included nine volumes (volumes 16–24) on birds Histoire naturelle des oiseaux (1770–1785) in his work on science Histoire naturelle générale et particulière (1749–1804). Jacob Temminck sponsored François Le Vaillant [1753–1824] to collect bird specimens in Southern Africa and Le Vaillant's six-volume Histoire naturelle des oiseaux d'Afrique (1796–1808) included many non-African birds. His other bird books produced in collaboration with

4374-459: A transparent top and visible cues such as the direction of sunlight may be controlled using mirrors or the positions of the stars simulated in a planetarium . The entire genome of the domestic fowl ( Gallus gallus ) was sequenced in 2004, and was followed in 2008 by the genome of the zebra finch ( Taeniopygia guttata ). Such whole-genome sequencing projects allow for studies on evolutionary processes involved in speciation . Associations between

4536-460: A two-part article in The Auk , noting the tensions between amateurs and professionals, and suggested the possibility that the "vast army of bird lovers and bird watchers could begin providing the data scientists needed to address the fundamental problems of biology." The amateur ornithologist Harold F. Mayfield noted that the field was also funded by non-professionals. He noted that in 1975, 12% of

4698-431: A vast array of living organisms ranging from the simplest unicellular eukaryotes such as Paramecium to such complex multicellular animals as the octopus , lobster and dragonfly . They constitute about 95% of the animal species. By definition, none of these creatures has a backbone. The cells of single-cell protozoans have the same basic structure as those of multicellular animals but some parts are specialized into

4860-479: A vertebrate is the vertebral column , formed in the development of the segmented series of vertebrae . In most vertebrates the notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs . However, a few vertebrates, such as the sturgeon and the coelacanth , retain the notochord into adulthood. Jawed vertebrates are typified by paired appendages, fins or legs, which may be secondarily lost. The limbs of vertebrates are considered to be homologous because

5022-693: A vestige of the pelvis and rear limbs in the form of pelvic spurs . The bar under the second fenestra has also been lost and the jaws have extreme flexibility allowing the snake to swallow its prey whole. Snakes lack moveable eyelids, the eyes being covered by transparent "spectacle" scales. They do not have eardrums but can detect ground vibrations through the bones of their skull. Their forked tongues are used as organs of taste and smell and some species have sensory pits on their heads enabling them to locate warm-blooded prey. Crocodilians are large, low-slung aquatic reptiles with long snouts and large numbers of teeth. The head and trunk are dorso-ventrally flattened and

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5184-594: A wide range of stretch lengths. It is found in such organs as sea anemone tentacles and the body wall of sea cucumbers . Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range of extension. It is found in the movement of appendages and jaws. Obliquely striated muscle is intermediate between the other two. The filaments are staggered and this is the type of muscle found in earthworms that can extend slowly or make rapid contractions. In higher animals striated muscles occur in bundles attached to bone to provide movement and are often arranged in antagonistic sets. Smooth muscle

5346-419: Is a complex and dynamic field that is constantly evolving as discoveries are made. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the use of advanced imaging techniques, such as MRI and CT scans , which allow for more detailed and accurate visualizations of the body's structures. The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic parts. Macroscopic anatomy , or gross anatomy,

5508-520: Is an eastern derivative of the cackling goose lineage. The barnacle goose was first classified taxonomically by Johann Matthäus Bechstein in 1803. Branta is a Latinised form of Old Norse Brandgás , "burnt (black) goose" and the specific epithet is from the Ancient Greek leukos "white", and opsis "faced". The barnacle goose and the similar brant goose were previously considered one species, and were formerly believed to spawn from

5670-465: Is another technique that has the advantage of preserving stomach contents and anatomy, although it tends to shrink, making it less reliable for morphometrics. The study of birds in the field was helped enormously by improvements in optics. Photography made it possible to document birds in the field with great accuracy. High-power spotting scopes today allow observers to detect minute morphological differences that were earlier possible only by examination of

5832-541: Is commonly taken to refer to human anatomy . However, substantially similar structures and tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal kingdom, and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals. The term zootomy is also sometimes used to specifically refer to non-human animals. The structure and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature and they are studied in plant anatomy . The kingdom Animalia contains multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic and motile (although some have secondarily adopted

5994-447: Is commonplace knowledge to the mere collector, such as that hunting parties often travel more or less in circles. David Lack's studies on population ecology sought to find the processes involved in the regulation of population based on the evolution of optimal clutch sizes. He concluded that population was regulated primarily by density-dependent controls , and also suggested that natural selection produces life-history traits that maximize

6156-412: Is concerned with the shape, size, position, structure, blood supply and innervation of an organ such as the liver; while a physiologist is interested in the production of bile , the role of the liver in nutrition and the regulation of bodily functions. The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches, including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy

6318-617: Is extinct and all extant ostrich races are today restricted to Africa . Other old writings such as the Vedas (1500–800 BC) demonstrate the careful observation of avian life histories and include the earliest reference to the habit of brood parasitism by the Asian koel ( Eudynamys scolopaceus ). Like writing, the early art of China, Japan, Persia, and India also demonstrate knowledge, with examples of scientifically accurate bird illustrations. Aristotle in 350 BC in his History of animals noted

6480-473: Is found in the walls of the uterus , bladder , intestines , stomach , oesophagus , respiratory airways , and blood vessels . Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart , allowing it to contract and pump blood round the body. Nervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells known as neurons which transmit information. In some slow-moving radially symmetrical marine animals such as ctenophores and cnidarians (including sea anemones and jellyfish ),

6642-554: Is often regarded as the greatest ornithological work in history. The emergence of ornithology as a scientific discipline began in the 18th century, when Mark Catesby published his two-volume Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands , a landmark work which included 220 hand-painted engravings and was the basis for many of the species Carl Linnaeus described in the 1758 Systema Naturae . Linnaeus' work revolutionised bird taxonomy by assigning every species

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6804-528: Is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds applies. The natural history of the barnacle goose was long surrounded with a legend claiming that they were born of driftwood : Nature produces [Bernacae] against Nature in the most extraordinary way. They are like marsh geese but somewhat smaller. They are produced from fir timber tossed along

6966-494: Is startlingly rapid". Between 1275 and 1326, the anatomists Mondino de Luzzi , Alessandro Achillini and Antonio Benivieni at Bologna carried out the first systematic human dissections since ancient times. Mondino's Anatomy of 1316 was the first textbook in the medieval rediscovery of human anatomy. It describes the body in the order followed in Mondino's dissections, starting with the abdomen, thorax, head, and limbs. It

7128-430: Is the branch of morphology concerned with the study of the internal structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times. Anatomy is inherently tied to developmental biology , embryology , comparative anatomy , evolutionary biology , and phylogeny , as these are

7290-426: Is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy . Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology , and also in the study of cells . The history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of

7452-584: Is the first such record of North American birds, significantly antedating Audubon. In the early 19th century, Lewis and Clark studied and identified many birds in the western United States. John James Audubon , born in 1785, observed and painted birds in France and later in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. From 1827 to 1838, Audubon published The Birds of America , which was engraved by Robert Havell Sr. and his son Robert Havell Jr. Containing 435 engravings, it

7614-437: Is the scientific study of the structure of organisms including their systems, organs and tissues . It includes the appearance and position of the various parts, the materials from which they are composed, and their relationships with other parts. Anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry , which deal respectively with the functions of those parts and the chemical processes involved. For example, an anatomist

7776-405: Is the study of structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes superficial anatomy or surface anatomy, the study by sight of the external body features. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, along with histology (the study of tissues), and embryology (the study of an organism in its immature condition). Regional anatomy is the study of

7938-411: Is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb girdles. The main external features of the fish, the fins , are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays, which with the exception of the caudal fins , have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose

8100-609: The Hippocratic Corpus , an Ancient Greek medical work written by unknown authors. Aristotle described vertebrate anatomy based on animal dissection . Praxagoras identified the difference between arteries and veins . Also in the 4th century BCE, Herophilos and Erasistratus produced more accurate anatomical descriptions based on vivisection of criminals in Alexandria during the Ptolemaic period . In

8262-572: The Bulo Burti boubou ( Laniarius liberatus , no longer a valid species) and the Bugun liocichla ( Liocichla bugunorum ), using blood, DNA and feather samples as the holotype material, has now become possible. Other methods of preservation include the storage of specimens in spirit. Such wet specimens have special value in physiological and anatomical study, apart from providing better quality of DNA for molecular studies. Freeze drying of specimens

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8424-511: The Triassic period. There is one living species, Sphenodon punctatus . The skull has two openings (fenestrae) on either side and the jaw is rigidly attached to the skull. There is one row of teeth in the lower jaw and this fits between the two rows in the upper jaw when the animal chews. The teeth are merely projections of bony material from the jaw and eventually wear down. The brain and heart are more primitive than those of other reptiles, and

8586-464: The chicken and poultry techniques. He used a number of traits including behaviour, particularly bathing and dusting, to classify bird groups. William Turner 's Historia Avium ( History of Birds ), published at Cologne in 1544, was an early ornithological work from England. He noted the commonness of kites in English cities where they snatched food out of the hands of children. He included folk beliefs such as those of anglers. Anglers believed that

8748-400: The epidermis and are found in localized bands from where they fan out over the skin. Large flight feathers are found on the wings and tail, contour feathers cover the bird's surface and fine down occurs on young birds and under the contour feathers of water birds. The only cutaneous gland is the single uropygial gland near the base of the tail. This produces an oily secretion that waterproofs

8910-533: The extracellular matrix . Often called fascia (from the Latin "fascia," meaning "band" or "bandage"), connective tissues give shape to organs and holds them in place. The main types are loose connective tissue, adipose tissue , fibrous connective tissue, cartilage and bone. The extracellular matrix contains proteins , the chief and most abundant of which is collagen . Collagen plays a major part in organizing and maintaining tissues. The matrix can be modified to form

9072-443: The goose barnacle . This gave rise to the English name of the barnacle goose and the scientific name of the brant. It is sometimes claimed that the word comes from a Celtic word for " limpet ", but the sense-history seems to go in the opposite direction. The barnacle myth can be dated back to at least the 12th century. Gerald of Wales claimed to have seen these birds hanging down from pieces of timber, William Turner accepted

9234-465: The goslings are not fed by the adults. Instead of bringing food to the newly hatched goslings, the goslings are brought to the ground. The parents show them the way to jump from the cliff and the goslings follow them by imprinting and take the plunge. Unable to fly, the goslings, in their first days of life, jump off the cliff and fall; their small size, feathery down, and very light weight helps to protect some of them from serious injury when they hit

9396-461: The mouthparts . The thorax has three pairs of segmented legs , one pair each for the three segments that compose the thorax and one or two pairs of wings . The abdomen is composed of eleven segments, some of which may be fused and houses the digestive , respiratory , excretory and reproductive systems. There is considerable variation between species and many adaptations to the body parts, especially wings, legs, antennae and mouthparts. Spiders

9558-419: The osprey emptied their fishponds and would kill them, mixing the flesh of the osprey into their fish bait. Turner's work reflected the violent times in which he lived, and stands in contrast to later works such as Gilbert White 's 1789 The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne that were written in a tranquil era. In the 17th century, Francis Willughby (1635–1672) and John Ray (1627–1705) created

9720-400: The stomach . All vertebrates have a similar basic body plan and at some point in their lives, mostly in the embryonic stage, share the major chordate characteristics: a stiffening rod, the notochord ; a dorsal hollow tube of nervous material, the neural tube ; pharyngeal arches ; and a tail posterior to the anus. The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column and is above

9882-504: The 1820s and 1830s, with pioneers such as J. Dovaston (who also pioneered in the use of bird feeders), but instruction manuals did not begin to insist on the use of optical aids such as "a first-class telescope" or "field glass" until the 1880s. The rise of field guides for the identification of birds was another major innovation. The early guides such as Thomas Bewick's two-volume guide and William Yarrell's three-volume guide were cumbersome, and mainly focused on identifying specimens in

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10044-687: The 1960s, two new breeding populations have established themselves, both located along migration routes of two of the original populations. The five populations are: Occasionally, a wild bird will appear in the Northeastern United States or Canada , but care must be taken to separate out wild birds from escaped individuals, as barnacle geese are popular waterfowl with collectors. Barnacle geese frequently build their nests high on mountain cliffs , away from predators (primarily Arctic foxes and polar bears ), but also away from their feeding grounds such as lakes, rivers. Like all geese,

10206-453: The 19th century. In 1901, Robert Ridgway wrote in the introduction to The Birds of North and Middle America that: There are two essentially different kinds of ornithology: systematic or scientific, and popular. The former deals with the structure and classification of birds, their synonymies, and technical descriptions. The latter treats of their habits, songs, nesting, and other facts pertaining to their life histories. This early idea that

10368-420: The 2nd century, Galen of Pergamum , an anatomist, clinician , writer, and philosopher, wrote the final and highly influential anatomy treatise of ancient times. He compiled existing knowledge and studied anatomy through the dissection of animals. He was one of the first experimental physiologists through his vivisection experiments on animals. Galen's drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became effectively

10530-536: The Birds by Roger Tory Peterson in 1934, to Birds of the West Indies published in 1936 by Dr. James Bond - the same who inspired the amateur ornithologist Ian Fleming in naming his famous literary spy . The interest in birdwatching grew in popularity in many parts of the world, and the possibility for amateurs to contribute to biological studies was soon realized. As early as 1916, Julian Huxley wrote

10692-608: The Elder described birds, among other creatures, in his Historia Naturalis . The earliest record of falconry comes from the reign of Sargon II (722–705 BC) in Assyria . Falconry is thought to have made its entry to Europe only after AD 400, brought in from the east after invasions by the Huns and Alans . Starting from the eighth century, numerous Arabic works on the subject and general ornithology were written, as well as translations of

10854-543: The Mediterranean, and Pierre Belon , who described the fish and birds that he had seen in France and the Levant. Belon's Book of Birds (1555) is a folio volume with descriptions of some 200 species. His comparison of the skeleton of humans and birds is considered as a landmark in comparative anatomy . Volcher Coiter (1534–1576), a Dutch anatomist, made detailed studies of the internal structures of birds and produced

11016-486: The Victorian era observed the variations in bird forms and habits across geographic regions, noting local specialization and variation in widespread species. The collections of museums and private collectors grew with contributions from various parts of the world. The naming of species with binomials and the organization of birds into groups based on their similarities became the main work of museum specialists. The variations in widespread birds across geographical regions caused

11178-496: The artist Barraband are considered among the most valuable illustrated guides ever produced. Louis Pierre Vieillot (1748–1831) spent 10 years studying North American birds and wrote the Histoire naturelle des oiseaux de l'Amerique septentrionale (1807–1808?). Vieillot pioneered in the use of life histories and habits in classification. Alexander Wilson composed a nine-volume work, American Ornithology , published 1808-1814, which

11340-541: The arts and sciences from the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt helped raise Alexandria up, further rivalling other Greek states' cultural and scientific achievements. Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria. Two of the most famous anatomists and physiologists of the third century were Herophilus and Erasistratus . These two physicians helped pioneer human dissection for medical research, using

11502-496: The atria were parts of the heart. Herophilus's knowledge of the human body has provided vital input towards understanding the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs, and nervous system and characterizing the course of the disease. Erasistratus accurately described the structure of the brain, including the cavities and membranes, and made a distinction between its cerebrum and cerebellum During his study in Alexandria, Erasistratus

11664-518: The basis of sense organs and there is a central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and a peripheral nervous system . The latter consists of sensory nerves that transmit information from sense organs and motor nerves that influence target organs. The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system which conveys sensation and controls voluntary muscle , and the autonomic nervous system which involuntarily controls smooth muscle , certain glands and internal organs, including

11826-436: The behaviour, with many names being onomatopoeic , and still in use. Traditional knowledge may also involve the use of birds in folk medicine and knowledge of these practices are passed on through oral traditions (see ethno-ornithology ). Hunting of wild birds as well as their domestication would have required considerable knowledge of their habits. Poultry farming and falconry were practised from early times in many parts of

11988-462: The body and they swim by undulating their body from side to side. Reptiles are a class of animals comprising turtles , tuataras , lizards , snakes and crocodiles . They are tetrapods , but the snakes and a few species of lizard either have no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their bones are better ossified and their skeletons stronger than those of amphibians. The teeth are conical and mostly uniform in size. The surface cells of

12150-430: The boundaries of bird territories. Studies of bird migration including aspects of navigation, orientation, and physiology are often studied using captive birds in special cages that record their activities. The Emlen funnel , for instance, makes use of a cage with an inkpad at the centre and a conical floor where the ink marks can be counted to identify the direction in which the bird attempts to fly. The funnel can have

12312-399: The brain, appreciated the division between cerebellum and cerebrum and recognized that the brain was the "seat of intellect" and not a "cooling chamber" as propounded by Aristotle Herophilus is also credited with describing the optic, oculomotor, motor division of the trigeminal, facial, vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal nerves. Incredible feats were made during the third century BCE in both

12474-516: The cadavers of condemned criminals, which was considered taboo until the Renaissance—Herophilus was recognized as the first person to perform systematic dissections. Herophilus became known for his anatomical works, making impressive contributions to many branches of anatomy and many other aspects of medicine. Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse, the discovery that human arteries had thicker walls than veins, and that

12636-427: The categories of those that are applicable to specimens and those that are used in the field, but the classification is rough and many analysis techniques are usable both in the laboratory and field or may require a combination of field and laboratory techniques. The earliest approaches to modern bird study involved the collection of eggs, a practice known as oology . While collecting became a pastime for many amateurs,

12798-527: The control of behaviour has also been aided by bird models. These have helped in finding the proximate causes of circadian and seasonal cycles. Studies on migration have attempted to answer questions on the evolution of migration, orientation, and navigation. The growth of genetics and the rise of molecular biology led to the application of the gene-centered view of evolution to explain avian phenomena. Studies on kinship and altruism, such as helpers , became of particular interest. The idea of inclusive fitness

12960-440: The cooperation of people and organizations in different countries. Wild birds impact many human activities, while domesticated birds are important sources of eggs, meat, feathers, and other products. Applied and economic ornithology aim to reduce the ill effects of problem birds and enhance gains from beneficial species. Anatomy Anatomy (from Ancient Greek ἀνατομή ( anatomḗ )  ' dissection ')

13122-418: The dermis which are overlain by horny ones and are partially fused with the ribs and spine. The neck is long and flexible and the head and the legs can be drawn back inside the shell. Turtles are vegetarians and the typical reptile teeth have been replaced by sharp, horny plates. In aquatic species, the front legs are modified into flippers. Tuataras superficially resemble lizards but the lineages diverged in

13284-412: The descriptions of bird species. These skin collections have been used in more recent times for studies on molecular phylogenetics by the extraction of ancient DNA . The importance of type specimens in the description of species make skin collections a vital resource for systematic ornithology. However, with the rise of molecular techniques, establishing the taxonomic status of new discoveries, such as

13446-474: The development of the discipline of landscape ecology . John Hurrell Crook studied the behaviour of weaverbirds and demonstrated the links between ecological conditions, behaviour, and social systems. Principles from economics were introduced to the study of biology by Jerram L. Brown in his work on explaining territorial behaviour. This led to more studies of behaviour that made use of cost-benefit analyses . The rising interest in sociobiology also led to

13608-402: The digestive and reproductive systems. Herophilus discovered and described not only the salivary glands but also the small intestine and liver. He showed that the uterus is a hollow organ and described the ovaries and uterine tubes. He recognized that spermatozoa were produced by the testes and was the first to identify the prostate gland. The anatomy of the muscles and skeleton is described in

13770-497: The editorial policy of the journal, leading both to a unification of field and laboratory studies and a shift of research from museums to universities. Ornithology in the United States continued to be dominated by museum studies of morphological variations, species identities, and geographic distributions, until it was influenced by Stresemann's student Ernst Mayr . In Britain, some of the earliest ornithological works that used

13932-402: The egg-laying monotremes , the platypus and the echidnas of Australia. Most other mammals have a placenta through which the developing foetus obtains nourishment, but in marsupials , the foetal stage is very short and the immature young is born and finds its way to its mother's pouch where it latches on to a teat and completes its development. Humans have the overall body plan of

14094-532: The end of each male pedipalp is a spoon-shaped cymbium that acts to support the copulatory organ . In 1600 BCE, the Edwin Smith Papyrus , an Ancient Egyptian medical text , described the heart and its vessels, as well as the brain and its meninges and cerebrospinal fluid , and the liver , spleen , kidneys , uterus and bladder . It showed the blood vessels diverging from the heart. The Ebers Papyrus ( c.  1550 BCE ) features

14256-489: The environment. Camera traps have been found to be a useful tool for the detection and documentation of elusive species, nest predators and in the quantitative analysis of frugivory, seed dispersal and behaviour. Many aspects of bird biology are difficult to study in the field. These include the study of behavioural and physiological changes that require a long duration of access to the bird. Nondestructive samples of blood or feathers taken during field studies may be studied in

14418-467: The epidermis are modified into horny scales which create a waterproof layer. Reptiles are unable to use their skin for respiration as do amphibians and have a more efficient respiratory system drawing air into their lungs by expanding their chest walls. The heart resembles that of the amphibian but there is a septum which more completely separates the oxygenated and deoxygenated bloodstreams. The reproductive system has evolved for internal fertilization, with

14580-413: The epidermis is normally formed of epithelial cells and secretes an extracellular matrix which provides support to the organism. An endoskeleton derived from the mesoderm is present in echinoderms , sponges and some cephalopods . Exoskeletons are derived from the epidermis and is composed of chitin in arthropods (insects, spiders, ticks, shrimps, crabs, lobsters). Calcium carbonate constitutes

14742-429: The epithelial lining and in the large intestine there are intestinal villi . Skin consists of an outer layer of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium that covers the exterior of the vertebrate body. Keratinocytes make up to 95% of the cells in the skin . The epithelial cells on the external surface of the body typically secrete an extracellular matrix in the form of a cuticle . In simple animals this may just be

14904-610: The equivalent of tissues and organs. Locomotion is often provided by cilia or flagella or may proceed via the advance of pseudopodia , food may be gathered by phagocytosis , energy needs may be supplied by photosynthesis and the cell may be supported by an endoskeleton or an exoskeleton . Some protozoans can form multicellular colonies. Metazoans are a multicellular organism, with different groups of cells serving different functions. The most basic types of metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue, both of which are present in nearly all invertebrates. The outer surface of

15066-508: The expression of Bmp4 have been shown to be associated with changes in the growth and shape of the beak. The chicken has long been a model organism for studying vertebrate developmental biology . As the embryo is readily accessible, its development can be easily followed (unlike mice ). This also allows the use of electroporation for studying the effect of adding or silencing a gene. Other tools for perturbing their genetic makeup are chicken embryonic stem cells and viral vectors . With

15228-511: The expression of genes and behaviour may be studied using candidate genes. Variations in the exploratory behaviour of great tits ( Parus major ) have been found to be linked with a gene orthologous to the human gene DRD4 (Dopamine receptor D4) which is known to be associated with novelty-seeking behaviour. The role of gene expression in developmental differences and morphological variations have been studied in Darwin's finches . The difference in

15390-405: The father of microscopical anatomy, discovered that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silk worm. He observed that when a ring-like portion of bark was removed on a trunk a swelling occurred in the tissues above the ring, and he unmistakably interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves, and being captured above the ring. Arthropods comprise

15552-435: The feathers when the bird preens . There are scales on the legs, feet and claws on the tips of the toes. Mammals are a diverse class of animals, mostly terrestrial but some are aquatic and others have evolved flapping or gliding flight. They mostly have four limbs, but some aquatic mammals have no limbs or limbs modified into fins, and the forelimbs of bats are modified into wings. The legs of most mammals are situated below

15714-443: The features of ancient fish. They have a bony skeleton, are generally laterally flattened, have five pairs of gills protected by an operculum , and a mouth at or near the tip of the snout. The dermis is covered with overlapping scales . Bony fish have a swim bladder which helps them maintain a constant depth in the water column, but not a cloaca. They mostly spawn a large number of small eggs with little yolk which they broadcast into

15876-456: The first major system of bird classification that was based on function and morphology rather than on form or behaviour. Willughby's Ornithologiae libri tres (1676) completed by John Ray is sometimes considered to mark the beginning of scientific ornithology. Ray also worked on Ornithologia , which was published posthumously in 1713 as Synopsis methodica avium et piscium . The earliest list of British birds, Pinax Rerum Naturalium Britannicarum ,

16038-437: The fitness of individuals. Others, such as Wynne-Edwards , interpreted population regulation as a mechanism that aided the "species" rather than individuals . This led to widespread and sometimes bitter debate on what constituted the "unit of selection". Lack also pioneered the use of many new tools for ornithological research, including the idea of using radar to study bird migration. Birds were also widely used in studies of

16200-491: The formation of huge collections of bird skins in museums in Europe and North America. Many private collections were also formed. These became references for comparison of species, and the ornithologists at these museums were able to compare species from different locations, often places that they themselves never visited. Morphometrics of these skins, particularly the lengths of the tarsus, bill, tail, and wing became important in

16362-580: The habit of bird migration , moulting, egg laying, and lifespans, as well as compiling a list of 170 different bird species. However, he also introduced and propagated several myths, such as the idea that swallows hibernated in winter, although he noted that cranes migrated from the steppes of Scythia to the marshes at the headwaters of the Nile . The idea of swallow hibernation became so well established that even as late as in 1878, Elliott Coues could list as many as 182 contemporary publications dealing with

16524-474: The hand. The earliest of the new generation of field guides was prepared by Florence Merriam , sister of Clinton Hart Merriam , the mammalogist. This was published in 1887 in a series Hints to Audubon Workers: Fifty Birds and How to Know Them in Grinnell's Audubon Magazine . These were followed by new field guides, from the pioneering illustrated handbooks of Frank Chapman to the classic Field Guide to

16686-482: The head. The dermis is covered with separate dermal placoid scales . They have a cloaca into which the urinary and genital passages open, but not a swim bladder . Cartilaginous fish produce a small number of large, yolky eggs. Some species are ovoviviparous and the young develop internally but others are oviparous and the larvae develop externally in egg cases. The bony fish lineage shows more derived anatomical traits, often with major evolutionary changes from

16848-510: The hibernation of swallows and little published evidence to contradict the theory. Similar misconceptions existed regarding the breeding of barnacle geese . Their nests had not been seen, and they were believed to grow by transformations of goose barnacles , an idea that became prevalent from around the 11th century and noted by Bishop Giraldus Cambrensis ( Gerald of Wales ) in Topographia Hiberniae (1187). Around 77 AD, Pliny

17010-516: The human body were made, which contributed to the understanding of the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs, and nervous system. The Hellenistic Egyptian city of Alexandria was the stepping-stone for Greek anatomy and physiology. Alexandria not only housed the biggest library for medical records and books of the liberal arts in the world during the time of the Greeks but was also home to many medical practitioners and philosophers. Great patronage of

17172-486: The human body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers (corpses) to 20th-century medical imaging techniques, including X-ray , ultrasound , and magnetic resonance imaging . Derived from the Greek ἀνατομή anatomē "dissection" (from ἀνατέμνω anatémnō "I cut up, cut open" from ἀνά aná "up", and τέμνω témnō "I cut"), anatomy

17334-423: The interrelationships of all of the structures in a specific body region, such as the abdomen. In contrast, systemic anatomy is the study of the structures that make up a discrete body system—that is, a group of structures that work together to perform a unique body function, such as the digestive system. Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about

17496-439: The introduction of trinomial names. The search for patterns in the variations of birds was attempted by many. Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775–1854), his student Johann Baptist von Spix (1781–1826), and several others believed that a hidden and innate mathematical order existed in the forms of birds. They believed that a "natural" classification was available and superior to "artificial" ones. A particularly popular idea

17658-473: The labels associated with these early egg collections made them unreliable for the serious study of bird breeding. To preserve eggs, a tiny hole was made and the contents extracted. This technique became standard with the invention of the blow drill around 1830. Egg collection is no longer popular; however, historic museum collections have been of value in determining the effects of pesticides such as DDT on physiology. Museum bird collections continue to act as

17820-532: The laboratory and out in the field, and innovations are constantly made. Most biologists who recognise themselves as "ornithologists" study specific biology research areas, such as anatomy , physiology , taxonomy , ecology , or behaviour . The word "ornithology" comes from the late 16th-century Latin ornithologia meaning "bird science" from the Greek ὄρνις ornis ("bird") and λόγος logos ("theory, science, thought"). The history of ornithology largely reflects

17982-506: The laboratory. For instance, the variation in the ratios of stable hydrogen isotopes across latitudes makes establishing the origins of migrant birds possible using mass spectrometric analysis of feather samples. These techniques can be used in combination with other techniques such as ringing. The first attenuated vaccine developed by Louis Pasteur , for fowl cholera, was tested on poultry in 1878. Anti-malarials were tested on birds which harbour avian-malarias. Poultry continues to be used as

18144-492: The largest phylum of invertebrates in the animal kingdom with over a million known species. Insects possess segmented bodies supported by a hard-jointed outer covering, the exoskeleton , made mostly of chitin . The segments of the body are organized into three distinct parts, a head, a thorax and an abdomen . The head typically bears a pair of sensory antennae , a pair of compound eyes , one to three simple eyes ( ocelli ) and three sets of modified appendages that form

18306-399: The length of the sides of fish, and these respond to nearby movements and to changes in water pressure. Sharks and rays are basal fish with numerous primitive anatomical features similar to those of ancient fish, including skeletons composed of cartilage. Their bodies tend to be dorso-ventrally flattened, they usually have five pairs of gill slits and a large mouth set on the underside of

18468-437: The lungs have a single chamber and lack bronchi . The tuatara has a well-developed parietal eye on its forehead. Lizards have skulls with only one fenestra on each side, the lower bar of bone below the second fenestra having been lost. This results in the jaws being less rigidly attached which allows the mouth to open wider. Lizards are mostly quadrupeds, with the trunk held off the ground by short, sideways-facing legs, but

18630-400: The main part of the trunk. The heart has two chambers and pumps the blood through the respiratory surfaces of the gills and on round the body in a single circulatory loop. The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision. There is an inner ear but no external or middle ear . Low frequency vibrations are detected by the lateral line system of sense organs that run along

18792-477: The more developed animals whose structures and organs are formed from three germ layers are called triploblastic . All of a triploblastic animal's tissues and organs are derived from the three germ layers of the embryo, the ectoderm , mesoderm and endoderm . Animal tissues can be grouped into four basic types: connective , epithelial , muscle and nervous tissue . Connective tissues are fibrous and made up of cells scattered among inorganic material called

18954-405: The name "barnacle" because of this legend. Based on these legends—indeed, the legends may have been invented for this purpose —some Irish clerics considered barnacle goose flesh to be acceptable fast day food, a practice that was criticized by Giraldus Cambrensis , a Welsh author: ...Bishops and religious men ( viri religiosi ) in some parts of Ireland do not scruple to dine off these birds at

19116-475: The nerves form a nerve net , but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals, specialized receptor cells such as chemoreceptors and photoreceptors are found in groups and send messages along neural networks to other parts of the organism. Neurons can be connected together in ganglia . In higher animals, specialized receptors are

19278-453: The niche hypothesis and Georgii Gause 's competitive exclusion principle. Work on resource partitioning and the structuring of bird communities through competition were made by Robert MacArthur . Patterns of biodiversity also became a topic of interest. Work on the relationship of the number of species to area and its application in the study of island biogeography was pioneered by E. O. Wilson and Robert MacArthur . These studies led to

19440-416: The notochord, and the gastrointestinal tract is below it. Nervous tissue is derived from the ectoderm , connective tissues are derived from mesoderm , and gut is derived from the endoderm . At the posterior end is a tail which continues the spinal cord and vertebrae but not the gut. The mouth is found at the anterior end of the animal, and the anus at the base of the tail. The defining characteristic of

19602-456: The oldest indications of an interest in birds. Birds were perhaps important as food sources, and bones of as many as 80 species have been found in excavations of early Stone Age settlements. Waterbird and seabird remains have also been found in shell mounds on the island of Oronsay off the coast of Scotland . Cultures around the world have rich vocabularies related to birds. Traditional bird names are often based on detailed knowledge of

19764-428: The only anatomical textbook for the next thousand years. His work was known to Renaissance doctors only through Islamic Golden Age medicine until it was translated from Greek sometime in the 15th century. Anatomy developed little from classical times until the sixteenth century; as the historian Marie Boas writes, "Progress in anatomy before the sixteenth century is as mysteriously slow as its development after 1500

19926-502: The order within the crow family. Where he failed to find five genera, he left a blank insisting that a new genus would be found to fill these gaps. These ideas were replaced by more complex "maps" of affinities in works by Hugh Edwin Strickland and Alfred Russel Wallace . A major advance was made by Max Fürbringer in 1888, who established a comprehensive phylogeny of birds based on anatomy, morphology, distribution, and biology. This

20088-688: The papers in American ornithology journals were written by persons who were not employed in biology related work. Organizations were started in many countries, and these grew rapidly in membership, most notable among them being the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) in Britain and the Audubon Society in the US, which started in 1885. Both these organizations were started with

20250-468: The primary objective of conservation. The RSPB, born in 1889, grew from a small Croydon -based group of women, including Eliza Phillips , Etta Lemon , Catherine Hall and Hannah Poland . Calling themselves the "Fur, Fin, and Feather Folk", the group met regularly and took a pledge "to refrain from wearing the feathers of any birds not killed for the purpose of food, the ostrich only exempted." The organization did not allow men as members initially, avenging

20412-506: The problem was how species arose from a common ancestor, but he did not attempt to find rules for delineation of species. The species problem was tackled by the ornithologist Ernst Mayr , who was able to demonstrate that geographical isolation and the accumulation of genetic differences led to the splitting of species . Early ornithologists were preoccupied with matters of species identification. Only systematics counted as true science and field studies were considered inferior through much of

20574-417: The processes by which anatomy is generated, both over immediate and long-term timescales. Anatomy and physiology , which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts respectively, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and are often studied together. Human anatomy is one of the essential basic sciences that are applied in medicine, and is often studied alongside physiology . Anatomy

20736-505: The relative lengths of wing feathers in warblers) are vital in establishing identity. Captured birds are often marked for future recognition. Rings or bands provide long-lasting identification, but require capture for the information on them to be read. Field-identifiable marks such as coloured bands, wing tags, or dyes enable short-term studies where individual identification is required. Mark and recapture techniques make demographic studies possible. Ringing has traditionally been used in

20898-471: The rocks below, but many die from the impact. Arctic foxes are attracted by the noise made by the parent geese during this time, and capture many dead or injured goslings. The foxes also stalk the young as they are led by the parents to wetland feeding areas. Due to these hardships only 50% of the chicks survive the first month. The barnacle goose is common and widespread, and its population and breeding range has increased in recent decades. The barnacle goose

21060-455: The same nature as other birds. The question of the nature of barnacle geese also came up as a matter of Jewish dietary law in the Halakha , and Rabbeinu Tam (1100–71) determined that they were kosher (even if born of trees) and should be slaughtered following the normal prescriptions for birds . In one Jewish legend, the barnacle goose is purported to have its beak forever attached to

21222-493: The same underlying skeletal structure was inherited from their last common ancestor. This is one of the arguments put forward by Charles Darwin to support his theory of evolution . The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage, in cartilaginous fish , or bone in bony fish . The main skeletal element

21384-406: The sea, and are at first like gum. Afterwards they hang down by their beaks as if they were a seaweed attached to the timber, and are surrounded by shells in order to grow more freely. Having thus in process of time been clothed with a strong coat of feathers, they either fall into the water or fly freely away into the air. They derived their food and growth from the sap of the wood or from the sea, by

21546-670: The shells of molluscs , brachiopods and some tube-building polychaete worms and silica forms the exoskeleton of the microscopic diatoms and radiolaria . Other invertebrates may have no rigid structures but the epidermis may secrete a variety of surface coatings such as the pinacoderm of sponges, the gelatinous cuticle of cnidarians ( polyps , sea anemones , jellyfish ) and the collagenous cuticle of annelids . The outer epithelial layer may include cells of several types including sensory cells, gland cells and stinging cells. There may also be protrusions such as microvilli , cilia, bristles, spines and tubercles . Marcello Malpighi ,

21708-1027: The specimen "in the hand". The capture and marking of birds enable detailed studies of life history. Techniques for capturing birds are varied and include the use of bird liming for perching birds, mist nets for woodland birds, cannon netting for open-area flocking birds, the bal-chatri trap for raptors, decoys and funnel traps for water birds. The bird in the hand may be examined and measurements can be made, including standard lengths and weights. Feather moult and skull ossification provide indications of age and health. Sex can be determined by examination of anatomy in some sexually nondimorphic species. Blood samples may be drawn to determine hormonal conditions in studies of physiology, identify DNA markers for studying genetics and kinship in studies of breeding biology and phylogeography. Blood may also be used to identify pathogens and arthropod-borne viruses . Ectoparasites may be collected for studies of coevolution and zoonoses . In many cryptic species, measurements (such as

21870-448: The structure and organization of organs and systems. Methods used include dissection , in which a body is opened and its organs studied, and endoscopy , in which a video camera -equipped instrument is inserted through a small incision in the body wall and used to explore the internal organs and other structures. Angiography using X-rays or magnetic resonance angiography are methods to visualize blood vessels. The term "anatomy"

22032-614: The study of living birds was merely recreation held sway until ecological theories became the predominant focus of ornithological studies. The study of birds in their habitats was particularly advanced in Germany with bird ringing stations established as early as 1903. By the 1920s, the Journal für Ornithologie included many papers on the behaviour, ecology, anatomy, and physiology, many written by Erwin Stresemann . Stresemann changed

22194-497: The study of migration. In recent times, satellite transmitters provide the ability to track migrating birds in near-real time. Techniques for estimating population density include point counts , transects , and territory mapping. Observations are made in the field using carefully designed protocols and the data may be analysed to estimate bird diversity, relative abundance, or absolute population densities. These methods may be used repeatedly over large timespans to monitor changes in

22356-741: The tail is laterally compressed. It undulates from side to side to force the animal through the water when swimming. The tough keratinized scales provide body armour and some are fused to the skull. The nostrils, eyes and ears are elevated above the top of the flat head enabling them to remain above the surface of the water when the animal is floating. Valves seal the nostrils and ears when it is submerged. Unlike other reptiles, crocodilians have hearts with four chambers allowing complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Birds are tetrapods but though their hind limbs are used for walking or hopping, their front limbs are wings covered with feathers and adapted for flight. Birds are endothermic , have

22518-435: The theory, and John Gerard claimed to have seen the birds emerging from their shells. The legend persisted until the end of the 18th century. In County Kerry , until relatively recently, Catholics abstaining from meat during Lent could still eat this bird because it was considered as fish. The barnacle goose is a medium-sized goose, 55–70 cm (22–28 in) long, with a wingspan of 130–145 cm (51–57 in) and

22680-607: The time of fasting, because they are not flesh nor born of flesh... But in so doing they are led into sin. For if anyone were to eat of the leg of our first parent (Adam) although he was not born of flesh, that person could not be adjudged innocent of eating meat. At the Fourth Council of the Lateran (1215), Pope Innocent III explicitly prohibited the eating of these geese during Lent, arguing that despite their unusual reproduction, they lived and fed like ducks and so were of

22842-401: The toes are often webbed for swimming or have suction pads for climbing. Frogs have large eyes and no tail. Salamanders resemble lizards in appearance; their short legs project sideways, the belly is close to or in contact with the ground and they have a long tail. Caecilians superficially resemble earthworms and are limbless. They burrow by means of zones of muscle contractions which move along

23004-457: The trends in the history of biology , as well as many other scientific disciplines, including ecology , anatomy , physiology , paleontology , and more recently, molecular biology. Trends include the move from mere descriptions to the identification of patterns, thus towards elucidating the processes that produce these patterns. Humans have had an observational relationship with birds since prehistory , with some stone-age drawings being amongst

23166-538: The trunk, which is held well clear of the ground. The bones of mammals are well ossified and their teeth, which are usually differentiated, are coated in a layer of prismatic enamel . The teeth are shed once ( milk teeth ) during the animal's lifetime or not at all, as is the case in cetaceans . Mammals have three bones in the middle ear and a cochlea in the inner ear . They are clothed in hair and their skin contains glands which secrete sweat . Some of these glands are specialized as mammary glands , producing milk to feed

23328-442: The vertebrae. Their skulls are mostly broad and short, and are often incompletely ossified. Their skin contains little keratin and lacks scales, but contains many mucous glands and in some species, poison glands. The hearts of amphibians have three chambers, two atria and one ventricle . They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products are excreted primarily as urea . Amphibians breathe by means of buccal pumping ,

23490-437: The water column. Amphibians are a class of animals comprising frogs , salamanders and caecilians . They are tetrapods , but the caecilians and a few species of salamander have either no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their main bones are hollow and lightweight and are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other and have articular processes . Their ribs are usually short and may be fused to

23652-1078: The widespread interest in birds, use of a large number of people to work on collaborative ornithological projects that cover large geographic scales has been possible. These citizen science projects include nationwide projects such as the Christmas Bird Count , Backyard Bird Count, the North American Breeding Bird Survey , the Canadian EPOQ or regional projects such as the Asian Waterfowl Census and Spring Alive in Europe. These projects help to identify distributions of birds, their population densities and changes over time, arrival and departure dates of migration, breeding seasonality, and even population genetics. The results of many of these projects are published as bird atlases . Studies of migration using bird ringing or colour marking often involve

23814-461: The word ecology appeared in 1915. The Ibis , however, resisted the introduction of these new methods of study, and no paper on ecology appeared until 1943. The work of David Lack on population ecology was pioneering. Newer quantitative approaches were introduced for the study of ecology and behaviour, and this was not readily accepted. For instance, Claud Ticehurst wrote: Sometimes it seems that elaborate plans and statistics are made to prove what

23976-566: The works of ancient writers from Greek and Syriac . In the 12th and 13th centuries, crusades and conquest had subjugated Islamic territories in southern Italy, central Spain, and the Levant under European rule, and for the first time translations into Latin of the great works of Arabic and Greek scholars were made with the help of Jewish and Muslim scholars, especially in Toledo , which had fallen into Christian hands in 1085 and whose libraries had escaped destruction. Michael Scotus from Scotland made

24138-574: The world. Artificial incubation of poultry was practised in China around 246 BC and around at least 400 BC in Egypt. The Egyptians also made use of birds in their hieroglyphic scripts, many of which, though stylized, are still identifiable to species. Early written records provide valuable information on the past distributions of species. For instance, Xenophon records the abundance of the ostrich in Assyria (Anabasis, i. 5); this subspecies from Asia Minor

24300-411: The young. Mammals breathe with lungs and have a muscular diaphragm separating the thorax from the abdomen which helps them draw air into the lungs. The mammalian heart has four chambers, and oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are kept entirely separate. Nitrogenous waste is excreted primarily as urea. Mammals are amniotes , and most are viviparous , giving birth to live young. Exceptions to this are

24462-445: Was also due in part to colonialism . At 100 years later, in 1959, R. E. Moreau noted that ornithology in this period was preoccupied with the geographical distributions of various species of birds. No doubt the preoccupation with widely extended geographical ornithology, was fostered by the immensity of the areas over which British rule or influence stretched during the 19th century and for some time afterwards. The bird collectors of

24624-425: Was also responsible for naming and describing the function of the epiglottis and the heart's valves, including the tricuspid. During the third century, Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from blood vessels and tendons and to realize that the nerves convey neural impulses. It was Herophilus who made the point that damage to motor nerves induced paralysis. Herophilus named the meninges and ventricles in

24786-448: Was developed further by Hans Gadow and others. The Galapagos finches were especially influential in the development of Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution. His contemporary Alfred Russel Wallace also noted these variations and the geographical separations between different forms leading to the study of biogeography . Wallace was influenced by the work of Philip Lutley Sclater on the distribution patterns of birds. For Darwin,

24948-704: Was involved in establishing Gaetz Lakes bird sanctuary. In the United States, the Breeding Bird Surveys , conducted by the United States Geological Survey , have also produced atlases with information on breeding densities and changes in the density and distribution over time. Other volunteer collaborative ornithology projects were subsequently established in other parts of the world. The tools and techniques of ornithology are varied, and new inventions and approaches are quickly incorporated. The techniques may be broadly dealt under

25110-489: Was part of Ibn Sīnā's massive Kitāb al-Šifāʾ . Frederick II eventually wrote his own treatise on falconry, the De arte venandi cum avibus , in which he related his ornithological observations and the results of the hunts and experiments his court enjoyed performing. Several early German and French scholars compiled old works and conducted new research on birds. These included Guillaume Rondelet , who described his observations in

25272-421: Was particularly concerned with studies of the circulatory and nervous systems. He could distinguish the human body's sensory and motor nerves and believed air entered the lungs and heart, which was then carried throughout the body. His distinction between the arteries and veins—the arteries carrying the air through the body, while the veins carry the blood from the heart was a great anatomical discovery. Erasistratus

25434-665: Was pioneered by Charles Sibley and Jon Edward Ahlquist , resulting in what is called the Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy . These early techniques have been replaced by newer ones based on mitochondrial DNA sequences and molecular phylogenetics approaches that make use of computational procedures for sequence alignment , construction of phylogenetic trees , and calibration of molecular clocks to infer evolutionary relationships. Molecular techniques are also widely used in studies of avian population biology and ecology. The use of field glasses or telescopes for bird observation began in

25596-535: Was the Quinarian system popularised by Nicholas Aylward Vigors (1785–1840), William Sharp Macleay (1792–1865), William Swainson , and others. The idea was that nature followed a "rule of five" with five groups nested hierarchically. Some had attempted a rule of four, but Johann Jakob Kaup (1803–1873) insisted that the number five was special, noting that other natural entities such as the senses also came in fives. He followed this idea and demonstrated his view of

25758-401: Was the standard anatomy textbook for the next century. Barnacle geese The barnacle goose ( Branta leucopsis ) is a species of goose that belongs to the genus Branta of black geese, which contains species with largely black plumage , distinguishing them from the grey Anser species. Despite its superficial similarity to the brant goose , genetic analysis has shown it

25920-425: Was used to interpret observations on behaviour and life history, and birds were widely used models for testing hypotheses based on theories postulated by W. D. Hamilton and others. The new tools of molecular biology changed the study of bird systematics, which changed from being based on phenotype to the underlying genotype . The use of techniques such as DNA–DNA hybridization to study evolutionary relationships

26082-403: Was widely repeated in, for example, Vincent of Beauvais 's great encyclopedia. However, it was also criticized by other medieval authors, including Albertus Magnus . This belief may be related to the fact that these geese were never seen in summer, when they were supposedly developing underwater (they were actually breeding in remote Arctic regions) in the form of barnacles —which came to have

26244-435: Was written by Christopher Merrett in 1667, but authors such as John Ray considered it of little value. Ray did, however, value the expertise of the naturalist Sir Thomas Browne (1605–82), who not only answered his queries on ornithological identification and nomenclature, but also those of Willoughby and Merrett in letter correspondence. Browne himself in his lifetime kept an eagle, owl, cormorant, bittern, and ostrich, penned

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