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46-579: Ornithoptera is a genus of birdwing butterflies found in the northern portion of the Australasian realm , east of Weber's line ; the Moluccas , New Guinea , the Solomon Islands , and northeastern Australia; except for Ornithoptera richmondia , which may be found in far northeastern New South Wales , Australia , therefore the southernmost distribution of birdwings. This genus includes

92-410: A female carefully, and examine the female for several minutes. After consideration, the male may choose to hover twenty to thirty centimeters above the female, displaying the bright yellow marking on its hindwings. Meanwhile, the forewings will move forward, exposing the abdomen and androconial hair tufts. Mating is only attempted when the female has ceased to flap her wings. After about thirty seconds of

138-559: A heterogametic male. During copulation males will transfer an ejaculate containing both sperm and accessory substances that can make up to fifteen percent of a males body mass. Mating systems , first explored in evolutionary terms by Darwin, includes all behaviours associated with sexual reproduction . Mating systems include all costs and benefits, pre- and postcopulatory competitions, displays and mate choice . Butterfly mating systems have great variation, including strict monandry, one male and one female, to polyandry , having many mates of

184-646: A maximum body length of 7.6 cm or 3 inches and a wingspan of 28 cm or 11 inches in O. alexandrae ), showy colouration (in contrasting shades of green, yellow, black, white, and sometimes blue or orange), and slender, lanceolate forewings. With few exceptions (i.e., the New Guinean O. meridionalis and O. paradisea ), the hindwings lack tails. Sexual dimorphism is strong in Ornithoptera species only, where males are black combined with bright iridescent green, blue, orange, or yellow while

230-459: A protective covering for the pupa. Cocoons may be tough or soft, opaque or translucent, solid or meshlike, of various colors, or composed of multiple layers, depending on the type of insect larva producing it. Many moth caterpillars shed the larval hairs ( setae ) and incorporate them into the cocoon; if these are urticating hairs then the cocoon is also irritating to the touch. Some larvae attach small twigs, fecal pellets or pieces of vegetation to

276-484: A retractable organ behind their heads called an osmeterium . Shaped like the forked tongue of a snake , the osmeterium excretes a fetid terpene -based compound and is deployed when the caterpillar is provoked. The caterpillars are also unappealing to most predators due to their toxicity: the vines which the caterpillars feed upon contain aristolochic acid , a poisonous compound known to be carcinogenic in rats . The feeding caterpillars incorporate and concentrate

322-422: A surface by a Velcro -like arrangement of a silken pad spun by the caterpillar , usually cemented to the underside of a perch, and the cremastral hook or hooks protruding from the rear of the chrysalis or cremaster at the tip of the pupal abdomen by which the caterpillar fixes itself to the pad of silk. ( Gr. kremastos 'suspended') Like other types of pupae, the chrysalis stage in most butterflies

368-414: Is contained in a protective silk case called a cocoon . The pupa of some species such as the hornet moth develops sharp ridges around the outside called adminicula that allow the pupa to move from its place of concealment inside a tree trunk when it is time for the adult to emerge. Pupa, chrysalis, and cocoon are frequently confused, but are quite distinct from each other. The pupa is the stage between

414-468: Is debated, and some authorities include additional genera. Birdwings are named for their exceptional size, angular wings, and birdlike flight. They are found across tropical Asia, mainland and archipelagic Southeast Asia , and Australasia . Included among the birdwings are some of the largest butterflies in the world: the largest, Queen Alexandra's birdwing ; the second largest, the Goliath birdwing ;

460-416: Is during the pupal stage that the adult structures of the insect are formed while the larval structures are broken down. The adult structures grow from imaginal discs . The pupal stage may last weeks, months, or even years, depending on temperature and the species of insect. For example, the pupal stage lasts eight to fifteen days in monarch butterflies . The pupa may enter dormancy or diapause until

506-481: Is not to be found near by. The females will typically resist mating attempts by covering their abdomen with their forewings or dropping to the ground, making mating near impossible. Although the females usually resist these mating attempts, they have been noted to be more susceptible if they have not had previous encounters with males of their own species. Some male Ornithoptera species demonstrate courtship behaviour. Ornithoptera priamus posedion males will approach

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552-403: Is often called metamorphosis , metamorphosis is really the whole series of changes that an insect undergoes from egg to adult. When emerging, the butterfly uses a liquid, sometimes called cocoonase , which softens the shell of the chrysalis. Additionally, it uses two sharp claws located on the thick joints at the base of the forewings to help make its way out. Having emerged from the chrysalis,

598-404: Is one in which there is little movement. However, some butterfly pupae are capable of moving the abdominal segments to produce sounds or to scare away potential predators . Within the chrysalis, growth and differentiation occur. The adult butterfly emerges (ecloses) from this and expands its wings by pumping haemolymph into the wing veins. Although this sudden and rapid change from pupa to imago

644-634: Is only observed in species that express strong sexual dimorphism. Gynandromorphs are suspected to be due to genetic errors associated with cell division such as nondisjunction, as well as fertilization of binucleate ova and fertilisation of multiple sperm that may fuse and act as a second nucleus. Ornithoptera is known to commonly exhibit this phenomenon, but little to no research has been successful in determining why. Those who experience this phenomenon, usually females, show male-pigmented tissues on their wings. Chrysalis The pupae of different groups of insects have different names such as chrysalis for

690-558: Is restricted in countries that have signed the CITES convention. Exceptions are made for captive-reared specimens, which mainly originate from ranches in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia . Most species of all three genera have now been reared in captivity, though with significant differences in the quantities reared of each species. O. alexandrae is listed on Appendix I and therefore cannot legally be traded internationally. At

736-408: Is the capability of making sounds or vibrations to scare potential predators. A few species use chemical defenses including toxic secretions. The pupae of social hymenopterans are protected by adult members of the hive. Based on the presence or absence of articulated mandibles that are employed in emerging from a cocoon or pupal case, the pupae can be classified in to two types: Based on whether

782-423: Is unable to enter the opening. The plug does not impede oviposition and may stay in place for the duration of the female's life. Sexual dimorphism is very prominent in Ornithoptera species, the males being black with brightly colored markings of blue, green, orange or yellow and the females are overall black or dark brown. The sexual dichromatism functions in mate recognition by the use of photoreceptors. Due to

828-418: Is well demonstrated by the fact that commercial breeders have produced numerous hybrids between the two. The final and smallest genus is Trogonoptera with just two species. They resemble each other, being overall black with iridescent green markings and a red head. Females are duller than males. Birdwings are generally found from Southeast Asia to northern Australasia . Trogonoptera brookiana inhabits

874-661: The Thai-Malay Peninsula , Borneo , Natuna , Sumatra , and various surrounding islands. Trogonoptera trojana is endemic to Palawan in the Philippines . Troides species are distributed widely across the Indomalayan realm , but may be found as far east as New Guinea in the case of Troides oblongomaculatus . Some species may be found as far west as India , and are the westernmost distributed of all birdwings. All Ornithoptera species are found in

920-574: The 2006 meeting of the CITES Animals Committee some suggested O. alexandrae should be moved to Appendix II, as the conservation benefits of sustainable management perhaps are higher than those of the trade ban. Three Troides and eight Ornithoptera species have been given assessments by the IUCN Red List , with classifications ranging from "least concern" to "endangered". Richmond birdwings ( O. richmondia ) depend on

966-498: The Ancient Greek term χρυσός ( chrysós ) for gold. When the caterpillar is fully grown, it makes a button of silk which it uses to fasten its body to a leaf or a twig. Then the caterpillar's skin comes off for the final time. Under this old skin is a hard skin called a chrysalis. Because chrysalises are often showy and are formed in the open, they are the most familiar examples of pupae. Most chrysalides are attached to

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1012-412: The appropriate season to emerge as an adult insect. In temperate climates pupae usually stay dormant during winter, while in the tropics pupae usually do so during the dry season . Insects emerge (eclose) from pupae by splitting the pupal case. Most butterflies emerge in the morning. In mosquitoes, the emergence is in the evening or night. In fleas, the process is triggered by vibrations that indicate

1058-511: The aristolochic acid into their tissues, where the poison will persist through metamorphosis and into adulthood. Birdwing chrysalids are camouflaged to look like a dead leaf or twig. Before pupating , the caterpillars may wander considerable distances from their host plants. In O. alexandrae , it takes about four months to get from egg to adult. Barring predation, this species can also survive up to three months as an adult. Birdwings inhabit rainforests and adults are usually glimpsed along

1104-405: The butterfly will usually sit on the empty shell in order to expand and harden its wings. However, if the chrysalis was near the ground (such as if it fell off from its silk pad), the butterfly would find another vertical surface to rest upon and harden its wings (such as a wall or fence). Moth pupae are usually dark in color and either formed in underground cells, loose in the soil, or their pupa

1150-412: The case of O. alexandrae completely banning) international trade. genus: Troides genus: Trogonoptera genus: Ornithoptera After mating , females immediately begin to seek appropriate host plants; climbing vines of the genera Aristolochia and Pararistolochia (both in the family Aristolochiaceae ) are sought exclusively. The female lays her spherical eggs under

1196-401: The display, the male will attempt copulation. In many animals, females often mate with more than one male. Males who are able will adapt strategies such as postcopulatory guarding to ensure the paternity of the offspring. Following insemination, it is common for the male Ornithoptera to produce a mating plug , which will seal the ostium bursae and prevent remating by the female, as new sperm

1242-532: The forest periphery. They feed upon—and are important long-range pollinators of—nectar-bearing flowers of the forest canopy, as well as terrestrial flowers, such as lantana . They are strong flyers and seek sunlit spots in which to bask. Breeding behaviour varies little between species; the female's role is relatively passive, slowly fluttering from perch to perch while the male performs an elaborate, quivering yet stationary dance 20–50 cm above her. Birdwings are typified by large size (up to

1288-407: The larger and less colourful females are overall black or dark brownish with white, pale brown, or yellow markings. Males and females of most Troides birdwings are similar and have jet black to brown dorsal forewings, often with the veins bordered in grey to creamy white. At least one of these darkly-coloured species ( T. rhadamantus ) possesses thermoreceptors on the anal veins (A2 and A3) of

1334-577: The largest butterfly endemic to Australia , the Cairns birdwing ; and the largest butterfly in India, the southern birdwing . Another well-known species is Rajah Brooke's birdwing , a particularly attractive species named after Sir James Brooke , the first White Rajah of 19th-century Sarawak . Due to their size and brightly coloured males, they are popular among collectors of butterflies, but all birdwings are now listed by CITES , thereby limiting (and in

1380-491: The larva and adult stages. The chrysalis generally refers to a butterfly pupa although the term may be misleading as there are some moths whose pupae resembles a chrysalis, e.g.: the plume winged moths of the family Pterophoridae and some geometrid moths. A cocoon is a silk case that the larvae of moths, and sometimes other insects, spin around the pupa. A cocoon is a casing spun of silk by many moths and caterpillars , and numerous other holometabolous insect larvae as

1426-484: The most economically important of all lepidopterans. The silk moth is the only completely domesticated lepidopteran; it does not exist in the wild. Insects that pupate in a cocoon must escape from it, and they do this either by the pupa cutting its way out, or by secreting enzymes , sometimes called cocoonase , that soften the cocoon. Some cocoons are constructed with built-in lines of weakness along which they will tear easily from inside, or with exit holes that only allow

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1472-425: The much rarer T. prattorum , are noted for their use of limited-view iridescence : the yellow of the dorsal hindwings is modified by bright blue-green iridescence which is only seen when the butterfly is viewed at a narrow, oblique angle. This "grazing iridescence" is brought about through diffraction of light (after back-reflection) by the wings' extremely steeply-set, multilayered rib-like scales (rather than

1518-570: The northern portion of the Australasian realm , east of Weber's line ; the Moluccas , New Guinea, the Solomon Islands , and northeastern Australia . An outlier is Ornithoptera richmondia , which may be found in far northeastern New South Wales , Australia in the southernmost area of its range; the southernmost distribution of all birdwings. With the exception of Queen Alexandra's birdwing ( O. alexandrae ), all birdwings are listed in Appendix II of CITES , and accordingly their trade

1564-486: The opposite sex. Typically Ornithoptera tend to be polygamous , mating with more than one individual. Female choice can have a serious impact on mate selection and successful reproduction. Several species of Ornithoptera have been known to create hybrids if they have no access to their own species. Troides oblongamaculatus females have been known to choose to mate with other species such as Ornithoptera priamus poseidon , which will attempt mating if their own species

1610-449: The outside of their cocoon in an attempt to disguise it from predators. Others spin their cocoon in a concealed location—on the underside of a leaf , in a crevice , down near the base of a tree trunk , suspended from a twig or concealed in the leaf litter . Contrary to popular belief, larvae do not completely liquify inside the cocoon. The silk in the cocoon of the silk moth can be unraveled to harvest silk fibre which makes this moth

1656-477: The plant Aristolochia praevenosa which they need for their caterpillars. However, the very similar Aristolochia elegans (Dutchman's pipe) which can be found in many Australian backyards, kills the caterpillars. Ornithoptera , or the genus of birdwing butterflies, usually reproduce sexually and are oviparous . In butterflies sex is determined by a WW/WZ system , with a heterogametic female, reverse of that found in mammals and many other insects, which have

1702-435: The possible presence of a suitable host. Prior to emergence, the adult inside the pupal exoskeleton is termed pharate . Once the pharate adult has eclosed from the pupa, the empty pupal exoskeleton is called an exuvia ; in most hymenopterans (ants, bees and wasps) the exuvia is so thin and membranous that it becomes "crumpled" as it is shed. Measuring the timing of this emergence is of interest to chronobiologists because

1748-460: The process is regulated by circadian clocks in many species, necessitating different assays to measure eclosion timing. In a few taxa of the Lepidoptera, especially Heliconius , pupal mating is an extreme form of reproductive strategy in which the adult male mates with a female pupa about to emerge, or with the newly moulted female; this is accompanied by other actions such as capping of

1794-460: The protected nature of Ornithoptera it has been difficult to study the spectral sensitivities of the sexes although this difference in coloration alludes to the idea of sensory exploitation of the female's photoreceptors. The sensory bias of females to select for males with brighter wings has yet to be studied in Ornithoptera . Gyanandromorphism is a very rare condition in which an organism simultaneously expresses both male and female phenotypes. It

1840-418: The pupae of butterflies and tumbler for those of the mosquito family. Pupae may further be enclosed in other structures such as cocoons , nests , or shells . The pupal stage follows the larval stage, or in some cases a prepupal stage, and precedes adulthood ( imago ) in insects with complete metamorphosis. The pupa is a non-feeding, usually sessile stage, or highly active as in mosquitoes. It

1886-407: The pupal appendages are free or attached to the body, the pupae can be classified as one of three types: A chrysalis ( Latin : chrysallis , from Ancient Greek : χρυσαλλίς , chrysallís , plural: chrysalides , also known as an aurelia ) or nympha is the pupal stage of butterflies . The term is derived from the metallic–gold coloration found in the pupae of many butterflies, referred to by

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1932-446: The reproductive system of the female with the sphragis , denying access to other males, or by exuding an anti-aphrodisiac pheromone. Pupae are usually immobile and are largely defenseless. To overcome this, pupae often are covered with a cocoon, conceal themselves in the environment, or form underground. Some species of Lycaenid butterflies are protected in their pupal stage by ants. Another means of defense by pupae of other species

1978-412: The ridge-lamellae of most other iridescent butterflies, such as Morpho species). Such limited-view iridescence was previously only known from one other species, the riodinid Ancyluris meliboeus . In A. meliboeus , however, the iridescence is produced by ridge-lamellar scales and features a wider range of colours. The close evolutionary relationship between Troides and Ornithoptera butterflies

2024-507: The tips of the vine's leaves, one egg per leaf. The caterpillars are voracious eaters but move very little; a small group will defoliate an entire vine. If starved due to overcrowding, the caterpillars may resort to cannibalism . Fleshy spine-like tubercles line the caterpillars' backs, and their bodies are dark red to brown and velvety black. Some species have tubercles of contrasting colours, often red, or pale "saddle" markings. Like other members of their family, birdwing caterpillars possess

2070-517: The two largest butterfly species in the world, the Queen Alexandra's birdwing and the Goliath birdwing . Ornithoptera species are highly prized by insect collectors because they are rare, large, and considered exceptionally beautiful. Birdwing Birdwings are butterflies in the swallowtail family, that belong to the genera Trogonoptera , Troides , and Ornithoptera . Most recent authorities recognise 36 species, however, this

2116-471: The wings and on the antennal clubs. The antennal receptors of the clubs—which also possess hygroreceptors that measure atmospheric humidity —are known as sensilla basiconica . The thermoreceptors are sensitive to sudden increases in temperature; they are thought to help the butterfly thermoregulate and avoid overheating while basking. The colours of most species are pigmentary (via papiliochrome ); but two species, Troides magellanus and

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