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101-477: Love Canal is a neighborhood in Niagara Falls, New York , United States, infamous as the location of a 0.28 km (0.11 sq mi) landfill that became the site of an environmental disaster discovered in 1977. Decades of dumping toxic chemicals killed residents and harmed the health of hundreds, often profoundly. The area was cleaned up over 21 years in a Superfund operation. In 1890, Love Canal

202-577: A plea deal after Anello pleaded guilty to unrelated charges of pension fraud, regarding a pension from the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers , of which he is a member. He was sentenced to 10 to 16 months in prison. The city's decline received national exposure from Bloomberg Businessweek in 2010. On November 30, 2010, the New York State Attorney General entered into an agreement with

303-525: A "national symbol of a failure to exercise a sense of concern for future generations". The Love Canal incident was especially significant as a situation where the inhabitants "overflowed into the wastes instead of the other way around". The University at Buffalo Archives house a number of primary documents, photographs, and news clippings pertaining to the Love Canal environmental disaster; many items have been digitized and are viewable online. Love Canal

404-500: A canal dug and built a few streets and houses. The Panic of 1893 caused investors to end sponsorship of the project. Then in 1906, environmental groups successfully lobbied Congress to pass a law, designed to preserve Niagara Falls, prohibiting the removal of water from the Niagara River. Only one mile (1.6 km) of the canal was dug, about 50 feet (15 m) wide and 10–40 feet (3–12 m) deep, stretching northward from

505-496: A catalyst for already hostile native tribes to turn to open warfare in competition for the fur trade. The City of Niagara Falls was incorporated on March 17, 1892, from the villages of Manchester and Suspension Bridge, which were parts of the Town of Niagara . Thomas Vincent Welch , a member of the charter committee and a New York state assemblyman and a second-generation Irish American , persuaded Governor Roswell P. Flower to sign

606-548: A chemical landfill beneath it forced United States President Jimmy Carter to declare a state of emergency , the first such presidential declaration made for a non-natural disaster. Hundreds of residents were evacuated from the area, many of whom were ill because of exposure to chemical waste. After the Love Canal disaster, the city—which had already been declining in population for nearly two decades—experienced accelerated economic and political difficulties. The costs of manufacturing elsewhere had become less expensive, which led to

707-514: A clay seal to prevent leakage. Over time, vegetation settled and began to grow atop the dump site. By the 1950s, the city of Niagara Falls was experiencing a population increase. With a growing population, the Niagara Falls City School District needed land to build new schools and attempted to purchase the property from Hooker Chemical. The population reached more than 98,000 by the 1950 census. During March 1951,

808-510: A far-reaching study. In 1977, a harsh winter storm dumped 33–45 inches (84–114 cm) of snow, significantly raising the water table. The excess water got into the ground water and raised the elevation of contaminants including dioxin. During the spring of 1977, the State Departments of Health and Environmental Conservation began an intensive air, soil, and groundwater sampling and analysis program after qualitative identification of

909-427: A large number of workers, many of whom were immigrants. In 1927, the city annexed the village of La Salle, named for Robert de la Salle, from the Town of Niagara . Industry and tourism grew steadily throughout the first half of the 20th century due to a high demand for industrial products and the increased mobility of people to travel. Paper, rubber, plastics, petrochemicals, carbon insulators and abrasives were among

1010-426: A nationwide issue as well. Brown's book, Laying Waste , examined the Love Canal disaster and many other toxic waste catastrophes nationwide. The dumpsite was declared an unprecedented state of emergency on August 2, 1978. Brown, who wrote more than a hundred articles concerning the dump, tested the groundwater and later found the dump was three times larger than originally thought, with possible ramifications beyond

1111-534: A number of organic compounds in the basements of 11 homes adjacent to the Love Canal. It was also revealed that the standards at the time did not require the installation of a liner to prevent leaching; this became very common among companies. Numerous contaminants dumped in the landfill included chlorinated hydrocarbon residues, processed sludge, fly ash , and other materials, including residential municipal garbage. Data showed unacceptable levels of toxic vapors associated with more than 80 compounds were emanating from

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1212-560: A public square named Cataract Commons opened on Old Falls Street. It is a public space for outdoor events and activities. The city has multiple properties on the National Register of Historic Places . It also has three national historic districts , including Chilton Avenue-Orchard Parkway Historic District , Deveaux School Historic District and the Park Place Historic District . Niagara Falls

1313-726: A retail store at 105 Hudson St, New York, NY, and factories in Albany, NY. Hooker sold the business in 1927. Hooker built a new chloralkali plant in Tacoma, WA in 1929. Additional products, including sodium sulfide , sodium sulfhydrate , sodium tetrasulfide , and aluminum chloride were produced by the company. In World War II, Hooker was a leading supplier of dodecyl mercaptan for the synthesis of rubber. The company also produced arsenic trichloride , thionyl chloride , and hexachlorobenzene . Hooker expanded into plastics manufacturing, developing epoxy vinyl ester resins , and in 1955 acquired

1414-531: A second school, the 93rd Street School, was opened six blocks away. The school district sold the remaining land sometime in late 1957 or early 1958, resulting in homes being constructed by private developers, as well as the Niagara Falls Housing Authority. The sale came despite the warning of a Hooker attorney, Arthur Chambers, that, as paraphrased in the minutes of a board meeting, due to chemical waste having been dumped in that area,

1515-667: A single Love Canal family had birth defects ; one girl was born deaf with a cleft palate , an extra row of teeth, and slight intellectual disability , and a boy was born with an eye defect. In 1976, two reporters for the Niagara Falls Gazette , David Pollak and David Russell, tested several sump pumps near Love Canal and found toxic chemicals in them. The Gazette published reports, once in October 1976 and once in November 1976, of chemical analyses of residues near

1616-613: A thermoset plastic phenolic resins business, called Durez Corp. Occidental Petroleum Corporation purchased Hooker Chemical Company in 1968. Since then, owners have renamed the company several times. In 2002, filmmaker David J. Ruck told the story of the Hooker Chemical Company and its environmental negligence in Montague, Michigan, in the documentary film, This is Not a Chocolate Factory . The films, The Killing Ground and A Fierce Green Fire, also explore

1717-554: A thunderstorm. As of the census of 2010, there were 50,193 people, 22,603 households, and 12,495 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,987.7 people per square mile (1,153.5 per square km). There were 26,220 housing units at an average density of 1,560.7 per square mile (602.6/km ). The racial makeup of the city was 70.5% White , 21.6% African American , 1.9% Native American , 1.2% Asian , 0% Pacific Islander , 0.8% from other races , and 3.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.0% of

1818-563: Is a neighborhood located in the city of Niagara Falls in the northwestern region of New York state . The neighborhood covers 36 blocks in the far southeastern corner of the city, stretching from 93rd Street comprising the western border to 100th Street in the east border and 103rd Street in the northeast. Bergholtz Creek defines the northern border with the Niagara River marking the southern border one-quarter mile (400 m) away. The LaSalle Expressway splits an uninhabited portion of

1919-621: Is at the international boundary between the United States and Canada. The city is within the Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area and is approximately 16 miles (26 km) from Buffalo, New York . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has an area of 16.9 square miles (44 km ), of which 14.1 square miles (37 km ) (83.43%) is land and 2.8 square miles (7.3 km ) (16.57%)

2020-522: Is published quarterly. The Messenger Of Niagara Falls, NY , which is officially Niagara Falls, New York's, first black-owned and operated news publication, founded October 2018. The Messenger Of Niagara Falls, NY published its inaugural issue April 2019. The Buffalo News is the closest major newspaper in the area. The city also is the home to a weekly tabloid known as the Niagara Falls Reporter . Three radio stations are licensed to

2121-549: Is represented by Congressman Brian Higgins . In the United States Senate , the city and the state are represented by senators Charles Schumer and Kirsten Gillibrand . Founded in 1892 Niagara Falls Police Department provide local law enforcement in the city with 155 sworn officers. This force is not to be mistaken for the Town of Niagara, New York which has a smaller force founded in 1954. Residents are zoned to

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2222-486: Is water. The city is built along the Niagara Falls and the Niagara Gorge , which is next to the Niagara River . Niagara Falls has a humid continental climate ( Dfa ). The city experiences cold, snowy winters and very warm, humid summers. Precipitation is moderate and consistent in all seasons, falling equally or more as snow during the winter. The city has snowier than average winters compared to most cities in

2323-414: The Niagara Falls Reporter . Union boss Michael "Butch" Quarcini died before trial, while the rest of the union leadership was sentenced to prison. In early 2010, former Niagara Falls Mayor Vincenzo Anello was indicted on federal charges of corruption , alleging the mayor accepted $ 40,000 in loans from a businessman who was later awarded a no-bid lease on city property. The charges were dropped as part of

2424-827: The Bridal Veil Falls , Maid of the Mist , a popular boat tour which operates at the foot of the Rainbow Bridge , Prospect Point and its observation tower , Niagara Discovery Center, Niagara Falls Underground Railroad Heritage Center , and the Aquarium of Niagara . Several other attractions also near the river, including Whirlpool State Park , De Veaux Woods State Park , Earl W. Brydges Artpark State Park in nearby Lewiston (town), New York , and Fort Niagara State Park in Youngstown, New York . Attractions in

2525-942: The Gridiron Developmental Football League are a minor league football team based in Niagara Falls. The team played their inaugural season in 2021. In 2017, the Tier III junior North American 3 Hockey League team, the Lockport Express, relocated to Niagara Falls as the Niagara Falls PowerHawks. Former sports teams based in Niagara Falls include the Class-A Niagara Falls Sox, the Class-A Niagara Falls Rapids ,

2626-561: The Niagara Falls City School District . Niagara University and Niagara County Community College are the two colleges in Niagara County. Since Niagara Falls is within the Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area , the city's media is predominantly served by the city of Buffalo. The city has two local newspapers, the Niagara Gazette , which is published daily except Tuesday and The Messenger Of Niagara Falls, NY which

2727-558: The Reform Jewish Temple Beth El. The Conservative Jewish Temple Beth Israel closed in 2012. Niagara Falls has struggled with high rates of violent and property crime ; FBI crime data indicate that the city has among the highest crime rates in New York state. In response to gun violence, volunteer groups such as Operation SNUG mobilized to promote positive community involvement in the troubled areas of

2828-417: The hazardous waste had existed before and placed all responsibility in clearly unqualified hands. It was this attempt to evade their responsibility, Colten and Skinner contend, that would "ultimately come back to haunt not only Hooker but all other chemical producers in the United States through the strict liability provisions of Superfund legislation." However, Eric Zuesse writes that Hooker's decision to sell

2929-459: The Canadian side has a greater average annual income, a higher average home price, and lower levels of vacant buildings and blight , as well as a more vibrant economy and better tourism infrastructure. The population of Niagara Falls, New York fell by half from the 1960s to 2012. In contrast, the population of Niagara Falls, Ontario more than tripled. In 2000, the city's median household income

3030-594: The Canadian side is the closest airport offering long-haul international flights for the Niagara region. The city is served by Amtrak 's Maple Leaf and Empire train services, with regular stops at the Niagara Falls Station and Customhouse Interpretive Center at 825 Depot Ave West. Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority is the public transit provider in the Buffalo metro area, with hubs at

3131-471: The City of Niagara Falls constructed sewers for a mixture of low-income and single family residences to be built on lands adjacent to the landfill site. While building the gravel sewer beds, construction crews broke through the clay seal, breaching the canal walls. Specifically, the local government removed part of the protective clay cap to use as fill dirt for the nearby 93rd Street School, and punched holes in

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3232-762: The Niagara Falls Lancers of the Midwest Football League , and the Western New York Thundersnow of the Premier Basketball League and American Basketball Association . The City of Niagara Falls functions under a strong mayor-council form of government. The government consists of a mayor, a professional city administrator, and a city council. The current mayor is Robert Restaino. The city council serves four-year, staggered terms, except in

3333-460: The Niagara River. The Panic of 1907 combined with the development of the transmission of electrical power over great distances , creating access to hydroelectric power far from water sources, proved disastrous for what remained of the Model City plan. The last piece of property owned by Love's corporation was lost to foreclosure and sold at public auction in 1910. By that point, Love himself

3434-689: The Portage Road and Niagara Falls transportation centers. Hooker Chemical Company Founded in 1903 as "the Development and Funding Company" by Elon Huntington Hooker , of Rochester, NY, the company used the Townsend cell to electrolyse salt into chlorine and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also known as "caustic soda" and "lye," in a chloralkali process . Elmer Sperry, founder of Sperry Electric, and Leo Baekeland , inventor of Bakelite and Velox photographic paper, consulted Hooker to improve

3535-558: The State of New York established the USA Niagara Development Corporation, a subsidiary to the State's economic development agency, to focus specifically on facilitating development in the downtown area. However, the organization has been criticized for making little progress and doing little to improve the city's economy. From 1973 to 2002, the city had a Convention and Civic Center on 4th street. In 2002

3636-521: The US, however less than many other cities in Upstate New York including nearby Buffalo and Rochester. Thaw cycles with temperatures above 32 °F (0 °C) are a common occurrence. The hottest and coldest temperatures recorded in the decade through 2015 were 97 °F (36 °C) in 2005 and −13 °F (−25 °C) in 2003, respectively. 38% of warm season precipitation falls in the form of

3737-399: The area had a higher than median income, and the majority of its households included young children. Due to the great percentage of new construction in the area, less than 3% of housing units were unoccupied. In 1976, a report evaluating Niagara Falls ranked Love Canal the fourth-best area in "social well-being." In total, 800 private houses and 240 low-income apartments were constructed. Before

3838-490: The area was Frenchman Robert de la Salle , who built Fort Conti at the mouth of the Niagara River early in 1679, with permission from the Iroquois , as a base for boatbuilding; his ship Le Griffon was built on the upper Niagara River at or near Cayuga Creek in the same year. He was accompanied by Belgian priest Louis Hennepin , who was the first known European to see the falls. The influx of newcomers may have been

3939-504: The area were found to have significantly increased mortality compared to controls (mean life expectancy in exposed animals "23.6 and 29.2 days, respectively, compared to 48.8 days" for control animals). New York State also has an ongoing health study of Love Canal residents. In that year, the Albert Elia Building Co., Inc., now Sevenson Environmental Services, Inc., was selected as the principal contractor to safely re-bury

4040-406: The average family size was 4.02. In the city, 22% of the population was under the age of 18, 10.1% aged from 18 to 24, 24.2% from 25 to 44, 28.2% from 45 to 64, and 15.5% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.4 males. The median income for a household in the city was $ 26,800, and

4141-535: The basements of numerous homes in the first ring directly adjacent to the Love Canal. Ten of the most prevalent and most toxic compounds – including benzene, a known human carcinogen – were selected for evaluation purposes and as indicators of the presence of other chemical constituents. Laboratory analyses of soil and sediment samples from the Love Canal indicate the presence of more than 200 distinct organic chemical compounds; approximately 100 of these have been identified to date. Numerous other chemicals seeped through

Love Canal - Misplaced Pages Continue

4242-421: The bill on St. Patrick's Day . George W. Wright was elected the first mayor of Niagara Falls . By the end of the 19th century, the city was heavily industrialized, due in part to the power potential offered by the Niagara River . Tourism was considered a secondary niche, while manufacturing of petrochemicals , abrasives , metallurgical products and other materials was the main producer of jobs and attracted

4343-453: The breached canal into an overflowing pool. People reported having puddles of oil or colored liquid in yards or basements. By the 1970s, the Love Canal area was an established suburb that appealed to commuters and families. It was proximate to the school and newly constructed churches, it was conveniently located just a few miles from the city center, and the expressway provided access to shopping and leisure opportunities. Census data revealed

4444-473: The canal's history. There was no monitoring or evaluating of the chemical wastes stored under the ground. Additionally, the clay cover of the canal, which was supposed to be impermeable, began to crack. The subsequent construction of the LaSalle Expressway restricted groundwater from flowing to the Niagara River. After the exceptionally wet winter and spring of 1962, the elevated expressway turned

4545-418: The canal. It subsequently converted it into a 16-acre (6.5 ha) landfill. In 1948, the City of Niagara Falls ended self-sufficient disposal of refuse and Hooker Chemical became the sole user and owner of the site. In early 1952, when it became apparent that the site would likely be developed for construction, Hooker ceased use of Love Canal as a dumpsite. During its 10-year lifespan, the landfill served as

4646-446: The case of a special election. It is headed by a chairperson, who votes in all items for council action. On a state level, Niagara Falls is part of the 145th Assembly District of New York State, represented by Republican Angelo Morinello . Niagara Falls is also part of the 62nd Senate District of New York State, represented by Republican Robert Ortt . On a national level, the city is part of New York's 26th congressional district and

4747-641: The chemicals to the surrounding residential areas. Once there, chemicals could leach into basements and evaporate into household air . In 1979, the EPA announced the result of blood tests that showed high white blood cell counts, a precursor to leukemia , and chromosome damage in Love Canal residents. 33% of the residents had undergone chromosomal damage. In a typical population, chromosomal damage affects 1% of people. Other studies were unable to find harm. The United States National Research Council (NRC) surveyed Love Canal health studies during 1991. The NRC noted

4848-430: The city and its police department to create new policies to govern police practices in response to claims of excessive force and police misconduct. The city committed to create policies and procedures to prevent and respond to allegations of excessive force, and to ensure police are properly trained and complaints are properly investigated. Prior claims filed by residents will be evaluated by an independent panel. In 2020,

4949-553: The city of Niagara Falls, including WHLD AM 1270, WEBR AM 1440, and WTOR AM 770. Niagara Falls is primarily served by the Buffalo Niagara International Airport for regional and domestic flights within the United States. The recently expanded Niagara Falls International Airport serves the city, and many cross border travellers with flights to Myrtle Beach, Fort Lauderdale, Orlando and Punta Gorda. Toronto 's Pearson International Airport on

5050-637: The city's major industries. This prosperity would end by the late 1960s as aging industrial plants moved to less expensive locations. In addition, the falls were incompatible with modern shipping technology. In 1956, the Schoellkopf Power Plant on the lower river just downstream of the American Falls was critically damaged by the collapse of the Niagara Gorge wall above it. This prompted the planning and construction of one of

5151-538: The city. Niagara Falls' main industry is tourism, driven primarily by the waterfalls. A 2012 profile from the Office of the New York State Comptroller reported that Niagara Falls has "struggled through decades of population losses, rising crime and repeated attempts to reinvent itself from a manufacturing town with some tourism to a major tourist destination." The city became a boomtown with

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5252-471: The closure of several factories. The city's population eventually dropped by more than half of its peak, as workers fled the city in search of jobs elsewhere. Then, much like the nearby city of Buffalo, the city's economy plummeted when a failed urban renewal project destroyed Falls Street and the tourist district. In 2001, the leadership of Laborers Local 91 was found guilty of extortion , racketeering and other crimes following an exposé by Mike Hudson of

5353-430: The company from all legal obligations should lawsuits occur in the future. Prior to the delivery of this instrument of conveyance, the grantee herein has been advised by the grantor that the premises above described have been filled, in whole or in part, to the present grade level thereof with waste products resulting from the manufacturing of chemicals by the grantor at its plant in the City of Niagara Falls, New York, and

5454-403: The company's proposal that the deed require the land to be used for park purposes only, with the school itself to be built nearby. As "a means of avoiding liability by relinquishing control of the site", Hooker deeded the site to the school board in 1953 for $ 1 with a liability limitation clause. The sale document signed on April 28, 1953, included a seventeen-line caveat purporting to release

5555-586: The design of the cell. The company was sited in Niagara Falls, NY foremost because of the low-cost electricity from the Niagara Falls power project , but also because of the abundance of salt from nearby mines, and availability of water from the Niagara River. Chlorine, used for sanitation and the chlorination of drinking water, was sold as chlorinated lime and chlorobenzene , which was an ingredient for an explosive used in World War I. Later, solvents like trichloroethylene and phenol were sold for use by

5656-565: The downtown include the Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel and Pine Avenue which was historically home to a large Italian American population and is now known as Little Italy for its abundance of shops and quality restaurants. The Niagara Power of the New York Collegiate Baseball League play at Sal Maglie Stadium . The team is owned by Niagara University . The Cataract City Wolverines of

5757-405: The dumping site of 21,800 short tons (19,800 t) of chemicals, mostly composed of products such as " caustics , alkalines , fatty acid and chlorinated hydrocarbons resulting from the manufacturing of dyes, perfumes, and solvents for rubber and synthetic resins". These chemicals were buried at a depth of twenty to twenty-five feet (6 to 7.5 m). Upon its closure, the canal was covered with

5858-406: The education committee informing them that during excavation, workers discovered two dump sites filled with 55-US-gallon (210 L; 46 imp gal) drums containing chemical wastes. The architect also noted it would be "poor policy" to build in that area since it was not known what wastes were present in the ground, and the concrete foundation might be damaged. The school board then relocated

5959-449: The end of the 1940s, Hooker Chemical Company was searching for a place to dispose its large quantity of chemical waste . The Niagara Power and Development Company granted permission to Hooker during 1942 to dump wastes into the canal. The canal was drained and lined with thick clay. Into this site, Hooker began placing 55-US-gallon (210 L) drums . In 1947, Hooker bought the canal and the 70-foot-wide (21 m) banks on either side of

6060-473: The famed Niagara Falls which they share. The city is within the Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area and the Western New York region. While the city was formerly inhabited by Native Americans, Europeans who migrated to the Niagara Falls in the mid-17th century began to open businesses and develop infrastructure. Later in the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists and businessmen began harnessing

6161-607: The firm for years, including on the Today Show . His book on toxic wastes, Laying Waste: The Poisoning of America By Toxic Chemicals , was the first written on the subject of toxic wastes and created a national firestorm, as did articles of his in The New York Times Magazine and The Atlantic Monthly . He also discovered a huge dump called the Hyde Park landfill (or Bloody Run) and the "S-Area," which

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6262-452: The first half of the 20th century due to a great demand for industrial products and the increased mobility of people to travel. Paper, rubber, plastics, petrochemicals, carbon insulators, and abrasives composed the city's major industries. At the time of the dump's closure in 1952, Niagara Falls was experiencing prosperity, and the population had been expanding dramatically, growing by 31% in twenty years (1940–1960) from 78,020 to 102,394. By

6363-513: The grantee assumes all risk and liability incident to the use thereof. It is therefore understood and agreed that, as a part of the consideration for this conveyance and as a condition thereof, no claim, suit, action or demand of any nature whatsoever shall ever be made by the grantee, its successors or assigns, against the grantor, its successors or assigns, for injury to a person or persons, including death resulting therefrom, or loss of or damage to property caused by, in connection with or by reason of

6464-399: The ground. Some of the chemicals and toxic materials found included benzene, chloroform, toluene, dioxin, and various kinds of PCB. (Lindane) ** ID – Identified but not quantified ug/L – microgram per liter ug/m – microgram per cubic meter At first, scientific studies did not conclusively prove the chemicals were responsible for the residents' illnesses, and scientists were divided on

6565-477: The grounds. This event displaced numerous families, leaving them with longstanding health issues and symptoms of high white blood cell counts and leukemia . Subsequently, the federal government passed the Superfund law. The resulting Superfund cleanup operation demolished the neighborhood, ending in 2004. In 1988, New York State Department of Health Commissioner David Axelrod called the Love Canal incident

6666-494: The issue, even though eleven known or suspected carcinogens had been identified, one of the most prevalent being benzene . Also present was dioxin ( polychlorinated dibenzodioxins ) in the water, a very hazardous substance. Dioxin pollution is usually measured in parts per trillion ; at Love Canal, water samples showed dioxin levels of 53 parts per billion (53,000 parts per trillion). Geologists were recruited to determine whether underground swales were responsible for carrying

6767-506: The land was not suitable for construction where underground facilities would be necessary. He stated that his company could not prevent the Board from selling the land or from doing anything they wanted to with it, but it was their intent that this property be used for a school and for parking. He further stated that Hooker felt the property should not be divided for the purpose of building homes and hoped that no one will be injured. During 1957,

6868-413: The land, including construction activity that substantially breached containment structures in a number of ways, allowing previously trapped chemicals to seep out. The resulting breaches combined with particularly heavy rainstorms released and spread the chemical waste, resulting in a public health emergency and an urban planning scandal. In what became a test case for liability clauses, Hooker Chemical

6969-521: The largest hydroelectric plants to be built in North America to that time, generating a large influx of workers and families to the area. New York City urban planner Robert Moses built the new power plant in nearby Lewiston, New York . Much of the power generated there fueled growing demands for power in downstate New York and New York City. The neighborhood of Love Canal gained national media attention in 1978 when toxic waste contamination from

7070-442: The local residents to create a protest group, which was organized by resident Karen Schroeder, whose daughter had many (about a dozen) birth defects. The New York State Health Department investigated and found an abnormal incidence of miscarriages. Brown discovered the size of the canal, the presence of dioxin , the expanding contamination, and the involvement, to an extent, of the U.S. Army . Hooker threatened to sue him and he fought

7171-463: The loss of jobs in the region, especially in the manufacturing sector, the city has gone from over 102,000 residents in 1960 to approximately 48,000 residents in 2020, a population drop of more than 50%. Before Europeans entered the area, it was dominated by the Neutral Nation of Native Americans. European migration into the area began in the 17th century. The first recorded European to visit

7272-603: The major exposure of concern was the groundwater rather than drinking water; the groundwater "seeped into basements" and then resulted in exposure through air and soil. Several studies reported higher levels of low-birth weight babies and birth defects among the exposed residents with some evidence the effect subsided after the exposure was eliminated. The National Research Council also noted a study that found exposed children were found to have an "excess of seizures, learning problems, hyperactivity, eye irritation, skin rashes, abdominal pain, and incontinence" and stunted growth. Voles in

7373-545: The median income for a family was $ 34,377. Males had a median income of $ 31,672 versus $ 22,124 for females. 23% of the population was below the poverty line. Niagara Falls has a number of places of worship, including the Salvation Army, First Assembly of God Church, First Unitarian Universalist Church of Niagara , St. Peter's Episcopal Church, First Presbyterian Church, St. Theresa Roman Catholic Church in Deveaux, and

7474-534: The more interested Wilcox and I became in the proposition, and finally came to the conclusion that the Love Canal property is rapidly becoming a liability because of housing projects in the near vicinity of our property. A school, however, could be built in the center unfilled section (with chemicals underground). We became convinced that it would be a wise move to turn this property over to the schools provided we could not be held responsible for future claims or damages resulting from underground storage of chemicals. While

7575-621: The movement through increased contributions to family labor in the absence of their activist wives. In addition to community organizing and pressuring authorities for appropriate responses, direct-action forms of activism were employed. Tactics included protests and rallies, which were intentionally timed and planned in an effort to maximize media attention. Such events included "controversial" methods such as mothers protesting while pushing strollers, marching by pregnant women, and children holding protest signs. Notably, two EPA employees were also held hostage by activists for approximately five hours at

7676-567: The office of the Love Canal Homeowners Association ( LCHA ) , to bring their demands to the attention of the federal government. Niagara Falls, New York Niagara Falls is a city in Niagara County, New York , United States. As of the 2020 census , the city had a total population of 48,671. It is adjacent to the Niagara River , across from the city of Niagara Falls, Ontario , and named after

7777-492: The old Love Canal dumpsite indicating the presence of 15 organic chemicals, including three toxic chlorinated hydrocarbons. The matter became quiet for more than a year and was then revived by reporter Michael Brown, who then investigated potential health effects by performing an informal door-to-door survey during early 1978, writing a hundred news items on toxic wastes in the area and finding birth defects and many anomalies such as enlarged feet, heads, hands, and legs. He advised

7878-499: The opening of the New York State Power Authority 's hydroelectric Niagara Power Plant in the 1960s; the cheap electricity produced by the plant generated power for a burgeoning manufacturing industry. Along with the rest of Western New York , Niagara Falls suffered a significant economic decline from a decline in industry by the 1970s. Today, the city struggles to compete with Niagara Falls, Ontario ;

7979-547: The original evacuation zone. He also discovered that toxic dioxins were there. Activism at Love Canal was initially organized by community residents Tom Heiser and Lois Gibbs , with Lois Gibbs often serving as spokesperson. Gibbs's strategies emphasized concerns for children and families of the affected area, with women taking the most prominent public and active roles. Many men also helped women in these efforts, though not always publicly. Men who were hesitant to oppose Hooker Chemical openly for example, were able to contribute to

8080-410: The population. There were 22,603 households, out of which 23.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 29.8% were married couples living together, 19.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.7% were non-families. 38.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.20 and

8181-401: The power of the Niagara River for electricity and the city began to attract manufacturers and other businesses drawn by the promise of inexpensive hydroelectric power. After the 1960s, however, the city and region experienced an economic decline. As industries left the region, affluent and middle-class families relocated from Niagara Falls to other metropolitan areas around the country. Due to

8282-532: The presence of said industrial wastes. It is further agreed as a condition hereof that each subsequent conveyance of the aforesaid lands shall be made subject to the foregoing provisions and conditions. Critics of Hooker's actions believe that, in the words of Craig E. Colton and Peter N. Skinner, "Hooker assigned the board with a continuing duty to protect property buyers from chemicals when the company itself accepted no such 'moral obligation'." The transfer effectively ended what provision of security and maintenance for

8383-544: The project Model City, New York . After 1892, Love's plan incorporated a shipping lane that would bypass Niagara Falls, and facilitate transportation between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. He arranged backing from financial banks in New York City, Chicago, and England. During October 1893, the first factory opened for business. In May 1894, work on the canal began. Steel companies and other manufacturers expressed interest in opening plants along Love Canal. Love began having

8484-500: The property rather than allowing the school board to condemn it stemmed from a desire to document its warnings. "Had the land been condemned and seized, says Hooker, the company would have been unable to air its concerns to all future owners of the property. It is difficult to see any other reason for what it did." Not long after having taken control of the land, the Niagara Falls School Board proceeded to develop

8585-428: The public revelation of the environmental crisis, developers were planning to expand the area with additional homes. There were 410 children in the school during 1978. Residents were suspicious of black fluid that flowed out of the Love Canal. For years, residents had complained about odors and substances in their yards or the public playgrounds. Finally, the city acted and hired a consultant, Calspan Corporation , to do

8686-444: The school board condemned some nearby properties, Hooker agreed to sell its property to the school board for $ 1. Hooker's letter to the board agreeing to enter into negotiations noted that "in view of the nature of the property and the purposes for which it has been used, it will be necessary for us to have special provisions incorporated into the deed with respect to the use of the property and other pertinent matters." The board rejected

8787-462: The school board prepared a plan showing a school being built over the canal and listing condemnation values for each property that would need to be acquired. During March 1952, the superintendent of Niagara Falls School Board inquired of Hooker with regard to purchasing the Love Canal property for the purpose of constructing a new school. After this, in an internal company memorandum dated March 27, 1952, Bjarne Klaussen, Hooker's vice president, wrote to

8888-543: The school site eighty to eighty-five feet (24 to 26 m) further north. The kindergarten playground also had to be relocated because it was directly on top of a chemical dump. Upon completion in 1955, 400 children attended the school, and it opened along with several other schools that had been built to accommodate students. That same year, a twenty-five-foot (7.6 m) area crumbled exposing toxic chemical drums, which then filled with water during rainstorms. This created large puddles that children enjoyed playing in. In 1955,

8989-432: The site to dump 19,800 t (19,500 long tons; 21,800 short tons) of chemical byproducts from the manufacturing of dyes, perfumes, and solvents for rubber and synthetic resins. Love Canal was sold to the local school district in 1953 for $ 1, after the threat of eminent domain . Over the next three decades, it attracted national attention for the public health problems originating from the former dumping of toxic waste on

9090-506: The solid clay walls to build water lines and the LaSalle Expressway. This allowed the toxic wastes to escape when rainwater, no longer kept out by the partially removed clay cap, washed them through the gaps in the walls. Hence, the buried chemicals could migrate and seep from the canal. The land where the homes were being built was not part of the agreement between the school board and Hooker; thus, none of these residents knew

9191-452: The south from the north. The canal covers 16 acres (6.5 ha) of land in the central eastern portion. In 1890, William T. Love, a former railroad lawyer, prepared plans to construct a preplanned urban community of parks and residences on the shore of Lake Ontario . Love, who would become notorious for similar real-estate schemes later in life, claimed it would serve the area's burgeoning industries with much-needed hydroelectricity. He named

9292-412: The subsidiary degreasing and dry cleaning company Detrex. Hooker licensed his diaphragm cell technology to other chloralkali producers. In 1918, Hooker formed a company to hydrogenate vegetable oils, while Hooker Chemical also began producing sulfur chloride and sodium chlorate . In 1922, Hooker bought the S. Wander & Sons Company for the retail sales of lye and chlorinated lime. Samuel Wander had

9393-637: The toxic waste at the Love Canal Site. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in 1979 residents exhibited a "disturbingly high rate of miscarriages ... Love Canal can now be added to a growing list of environmental disasters involving toxics, ranging from industrial workers stricken by nervous disorders and cancers to the discovery of toxic materials in the milk of nursing mothers." In one case, two out of four children in

9494-531: The venue was converted into the Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel . In 2004, a new Niagara Falls Convention Center (NFCC) opened on Old Falls Street. The Old Falls Street venue has 116,000 square feet for exhibitions and meetings, and a 32,200-square-foot event/exhibit hall. The city is home to the Niagara Falls State Park . The park has several attractions, including Cave of the Winds behind

9595-411: The works manager that "it may be advisable to discontinue using the Love Canal property for a dumping ground." During April 1952, after discussing the sale of the land with Ansley Wilcox II, Hooker's in-house legal counsel, Klaussen then wrote to the company president, R.L. Murray, suggesting that the sale could alleviate them from future liabilities for the buried chemicals: The more we thought about it,

9696-628: Was 36% below the national average. In 2012, the city's unemployment rate was significantly higher than the statewide unemployment rate. Significant sources of economic activity in the region includes the Niagara Falls International Airport , which was renovated in 2009; the Seneca Gaming Corporation 's Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel , which opened in the 2000s respectively; and the nearby Niagara Falls Air Reserve Station . In late 2001,

9797-400: Was created as a model planned community , but was only partially developed. In 1894 work was begun on a canal that would have linked lakes Erie and Ontario, but it was abandoned after only one mile (1.6 km) was dug. In the 1920s, the canal became a dump site for municipal refuse for the city of Niagara Falls. During the 1940s, the canal was purchased by Hooker Chemical Company , which used

9898-477: Was found to be "negligent" in their disposal of waste, though not reckless in the sale of the land. The dumpsite was discovered and investigated by the local newspaper, the Niagara Falls Gazette , from 1976 through the evacuation in 1978. Despite the disclaimer, the School Board began construction of the 99th Street School in its originally intended location. In January 1954, the school's architect wrote to

9999-431: Was leaking into the water supply for Niagara Falls. His work inspired many activists. He spoke for ten years on the college lecture circuit. In September 1977, Congressman John LaFalce (D), who represented the district, paid a high profile visit to Love Canal, to raise attention to the serious problems. LaFalce intervened to get city, state and federal officials, and Hooker executives, involved to take quick action, but he

10100-477: Was long gone; in 1897 he left the United States for England, before returning to attempt similar schemes in Washington, Illinois, and Delaware. With the project abandoned, the canal gradually filled with water. Local children swam there during summers and skated during the winters. In the 1920s, the city of Niagara Falls used the canal as a municipal landfill. Industry and tourism increased steadily throughout

10201-526: Was met with resistance, apathy and stalling. By 1978, Love Canal had become a national media event with articles referring to the neighborhood as "a public health time bomb", and "one of the most appalling environmental tragedies in American history". Brown, working for the local newspaper, the Niagara Gazette , is credited with not only revealing the case, but establishing toxic chemical wastes as

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