A breast-shaped hill is a hill in the shape of a breast . Some such hills are named " Pap ", an archaic word for the breast or nipple of a woman. Such anthropomorphic geographic features are found in different places of the world and in some cultures they were revered as the attributes of the Mother Goddess , such as the Paps of Anu , named after Anu , an important female deity of pre-Christian Ireland .
43-455: The Lomond Hills (meaning either beacon hills or bare hills), also known outside the locality as the Paps of Fife , are a range of hills in central Scotland. They lie in western central Fife and Perth and Kinross , Scotland . At 522 metres (1,713 ft) West Lomond is the highest point in the county of Fife. The name Lomond Hills was first recorded Lomondys in 1315, and may derive from
86-510: A Pictish cognate of Welsh llumon , meaning "beacon", an element found for example in the hill-name Pumlumon in Wales. Also suggested is derivation from Gaelic lom monadh , "bare hill", perhaps adapted from an earlier Pictish name containing cognate elements. The Lomond Hills contain two prominent peaks, West Lomond and East Lomond (or Falkland Hill) (448 metres (1,470 ft)), which sit just under 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) apart above
129-582: A body of mantle rocks on Zabargad Island in the Red Sea . Olivine occurs in both mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks and as a primary mineral in certain metamorphic rocks . Mg-rich olivine crystallizes from magma that is rich in magnesium and low in silica . That magma crystallizes to mafic rocks such as gabbro and basalt . Ultramafic rocks usually contain substantial olivine, and those with an olivine content of over 40% are described as peridotites . Dunite has an olivine content of over 90% and
172-495: A cheap way to sequester CO 2 . The presence of iddingsite on Mars would suggest that liquid water once existed there, and might enable scientists to determine when there was last liquid water on the planet. Because of its rapid weathering, olivine is rarely found in sedimentary rock . Norway is the main source of olivine in Europe, particularly in an area stretching from Åheim to Tafjord , and from Hornindal to Flemsøy in
215-618: A depth of about 410 km (250 mi) within Earth. Because it is thought to be the most abundant mineral in Earth's mantle at shallower depths, the properties of olivine have a dominant influence upon the rheology of that part of Earth and hence upon the solid flow that drives plate tectonics . Experiments have documented that olivine at high pressures (12 GPa , the pressure at depths of about 360 km (220 mi)) can contain at least as much as about 8900 parts per million (weight) of water, and that such water content drastically reduces
258-446: A depth of about 660 km (410 mi), ringwoodite decomposes into silicate perovskite ( (Mg,Fe)SiO 3 ) and ferropericlase ( (Mg,Fe)O ) in an endothermic reaction. These phase transitions lead to a discontinuous increase in the density of the Earth's mantle that can be observed by seismic methods. They are also thought to influence the dynamics of mantle convection in that the exothermic transitions reinforce flow across
301-411: A general position. At the high temperatures and pressures found at depth within the Earth the olivine structure is no longer stable. Below depths of about 410 km (250 mi) olivine undergoes an exothermic phase transition to the sorosilicate , wadsleyite and, at about 520 km (320 mi) depth, wadsleyite transforms exothermically into ringwoodite , which has the spinel structure. At
344-431: A hexagonal, close-packed array of oxygen ions with half of the octahedral sites occupied with magnesium or iron ions and one-eighth of the tetrahedral sites occupied by silicon ions. There are three distinct oxygen sites (marked O1, O2 and O3 in figure 1), two distinct metal sites (M1 and M2) and only one distinct silicon site. O1, O2, M2 and Si all lie on mirror planes , while M1 exists on an inversion center. O3 lies in
387-413: A long north and west-facing escarpment over 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) in length. The escarpment, made from beds of sandstone , limestone and a quartz-dolerite sill , rises steeply from the low ground to the north and west to a plateau of around 350 metres (1,150 ft) in height between the peaks of East and West Lomond. The western portion of the escarpment runs southwards from West Lomond beyond
430-592: A result of traces of nickel , though it may alter to a reddish color from the oxidation of iron. Translucent olivine is sometimes used as a gemstone called peridot ( péridot , the French word for olivine). It is also called chrysolite (or chrysolithe , from the Greek words for gold and stone), though this name is now rarely used in the English language. Some of the finest gem-quality olivine has been obtained from
473-403: Is a teschenite/ olivine dolerite intrusion and vent agglomerate . A few faults affect the escarpment vertically offsetting the crags on either side. The Coul Fault is a northerly downthrowing fault aligned WNW-ESE running through the range and beneath Ballo Reservoir. Many lower areas are draped with glacial till from the last ice age . Easterly directed meltwater channels occur around
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#1732776657785516-759: Is a type of nesosilicate or orthosilicate . The primary component of the Earth's upper mantle , it is a common mineral in Earth's subsurface, but weathers quickly on the surface. Olivine has many uses, such as the gemstone peridot (or chrysolite), as well as industrial applications like metalworking processes. The ratio of magnesium to iron varies between the two endmembers of the solid solution series: forsterite (Mg-endmember: Mg 2 Si O 4 ) and fayalite (Fe-endmember: Fe 2 Si O 4 ). Compositions of olivine are commonly expressed as molar percentages of forsterite (Fo) and/or fayalite (Fa) ( e.g. , Fo 70 Fa 30 , or just Fo 70 with Fa 30 implied). Forsterite's melting temperature
559-605: Is believed to be a spot where covenanters held conventicles in the 17th century. There are also striking outcrops in the columnar jointing at the edge of the dolerite sill on Bishop Hill, most notably Carlin Maggie . The River Eden , one of the two primary rivers in Fife, has its source on the slopes of West Lomond. On the northern slopes of the Lomond Hills, two burns run down from the plateau in impressive gorges. These are
602-474: Is likely a cumulate formed by olivine crystallizing and settling out of magma or a vein mineral lining magma conduits. Olivine and high pressure structural variants constitute over 50% of the Earth's upper mantle, and olivine is one of the Earth's most common minerals by volume. The metamorphism of impure dolomite or other sedimentary rocks with high magnesium and low silica content also produces Mg-rich olivine, or forsterite . Fe-rich olivine fayalite
645-423: Is privately owned. As a result of their accessibility and proximity to several major population centres, the hills are very popular with walkers. This has resulted in a considerable amount of footpath erosion, particularly on the steeper sections, that the ranger service and volunteer workers are taking measures to counteract. Both East and West Lomond can easily be climbed from Craigmead Car Park, which lies between
688-477: Is reflected in several local names with "red" such as Raudbergvik (Red rock bay) or Raudnakken (Red ridge). Hans Strøm in 1766 described the olivine's typical red color on the surface and the blue color within. Strøm wrote that in Norddal district large quantities of olivine were broken from the bedrock and used as sharpening stones . Kallskaret near Tafjord is a nature reserve with olivine. Olivine
731-410: Is relatively much less common, but it occurs in igneous rocks in small amounts in rare granites and rhyolites , and extremely Fe-rich olivine can exist stably with quartz and tridymite . In contrast, Mg-rich olivine does not occur stably with silica minerals, as it would react with them to form orthopyroxene ( (Mg,Fe) 2 Si 2 O 6 ). Mg-rich olivine is stable to pressures equivalent to
774-418: Is unusually high at atmospheric pressure, almost 1,900 °C (3,450 °F), while fayalite's is much lower – about 1,200 °C (2,190 °F). Melting temperature varies smoothly between the two endmembers, as do other properties. Olivine incorporates only minor amounts of elements other than oxygen (O), silicon (Si), magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe). Manganese (Mn) and nickel (Ni) commonly are
817-558: Is used as a substitute for dolomite in steel works. The aluminium foundry industry uses olivine sand to cast objects in aluminium. Olivine sand requires less water than silica sands while still holding the mold together during handling and pouring of the metal. Less water means less gas (steam) to vent from the mold as metal is poured into the mold. In Finland, olivine is marketed as an ideal rock for sauna stoves because of its comparatively high density and resistance to weathering under repeated heating and cooling. Gem-quality olivine
860-487: The Crimean War of the 1850s. The word mamelon is also used in volcanology to describe a particular rock formation of volcanic origin. The term was coined by the French explorer and naturalist Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent . Olivine The mineral olivine ( / ˈ ɒ l . ɪ ˌ v iː n / ) is a magnesium iron silicate with the chemical formula ( Mg , Fe ) 2 Si O 4 . It
903-713: The Indigenous Australian people as Didhol or Dithol (Woman's Breast) was renamed Pigeon House Mountain by Captain James Cook at the time of his exploration of Australia 's eastern coast in 1770. Mamelon (from French "nipple") is a French name for a breast-shaped hillock. Fort Mamelon was a famous hillock fortified by the Russians and captured by the French as part of the Siege of Sevastopol during
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#1732776657785946-737: The Sunnmøre district. There is also olivine in Eid municipality. About 50% of the world's olivine for industrial use is produced in Norway. At Svarthammaren in Norddal olivine was mined from around 1920 to 1979, with a daily output up to 600 metric tons. Olivine was also obtained from the construction site of the hydro power stations in Tafjord. At Robbervika in Norddal municipality an open-pit mine has been in operation since 1984. The characteristic red color
989-473: The orthorhombic P Bravais lattice , which arise from each silica (SiO 4 ) unit being joined by metal divalent cations with each oxygen in SiO 4 bound to three metal ions. It has a spinel -like structure similar to magnetite but uses one quadrivalent and two divalent cations M 2 M O 4 instead of two trivalent and one divalent cations. Olivine is named for its typically olive-green color, thought to be
1032-845: The Calciferous Sandstone Measures. These in turn are overlain by the varied cyclic sequences of the Lower Limestone Formation . The igneous rocks are relatively resistant to erosion and form the main scarp and two summits. A quartz-dolerite sill of probable Permo-Carboniferous age, forming a part of the Midland Valley Sill Complex intrudes the early Carboniferous sedimentary rocks of the Lower Limestone Formation. The peaks of West Lomond and Green Hill are nepheline - basanite intrusions whilst East Lomond
1075-499: The Lomonds. East Lomond, due to the easy access from the high car park, is often used by paragliders on windy days. The Falkland Hill Race is held annually and begins at the fountain in the centre of Falkland village. The competitors must run (or in many cases walk) to the summit of East Lomond before returning to the fountain. The wooded northern slopes of East Lomond also boast a series of downhill mountainbike tracks. Gliders from
1118-745: The Maspie Burn and the Arraty Burn. Maspie Den has a path running along its length to an undercut waterfall at the top, which can be accessed just beyond Falkland House (approaching from the Falkland direction). Glen Vale with the Glen Burn, to the south of West Lomond, is equally impressive. The hills are formed from early Carboniferous sedimentary rocks overlying Devonian sandstones and intruded by sills and volcanic plugs during late Carboniferous and Permian times. The lower ground to
1161-573: The Scottish Gliding Centre at Portmoak between Bishop Hill and Loch Leven may be seen riding the thermals above the hills. Breast-shaped hill The name Mamucium that gave origin to the name of the city of Manchester is thought to derive from a Celtic language name meaning "breast-shaped hill", referring to the sandstone bluff on which the fort stood; this later evolved into the name Manchester. Breast-shaped hills are often connected with local ancestral veneration of
1204-401: The additional elements present in highest concentrations. Olivine gives its name to the group of minerals with a related structure (the olivine group ) – which includes tephroite ( Mn 2 SiO 4 ), monticellite ( Ca MgSiO 4 ), larnite (Ca 2 SiO 4 ) and kirschsteinite (CaFeSiO 4 ) (commonly also spelled kirschteinite ). Olivine's crystal structure incorporates aspects of
1247-465: The breast as a symbol of fertility and well-being. It is not uncommon for very old archaeological sites to be located in or below such hills, as on Samson, Isles of Scilly , where there are large ancient burial grounds both on the North Hill and South Hill, or Burrén and Burrena , Aragon , Spain , where two Iron Age Urnfield culture archaeological sites lie beneath the hills. Many of
1290-464: The deep valley of the Glen Burn (Glen Vale) to Bishop Hill (locally, simply The Bishop) (461 metres (1,512 ft)). The steep-sided peaks of East and West Lomond themselves are volcanic in origin. Along the edges of the sandstone bed at the foot of the scarp slopes are several strikingly eroded outcrops, the most famous of which are the Bunnet Stane and John Knox's Pulpit , so named because it
1333-401: The early Solar System ; and pallasites , mixes of iron-nickel and olivine. The rare A-type asteroids are suspected to have a surface dominated by olivine. The spectral signature of olivine has been seen in the dust disks around young stars. The tails of comets (which formed from the dust disk around the young Sun ) often have the spectral signature of olivine, and the presence of olivine
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1376-411: The iron content decreases the pressure of the phase transition and narrows the wadsleyite stability field. At about 0.8 mole fraction fayalite, olivine transforms directly to ringwoodite over the pressure range 10.0 to 11.5 GPa (99,000–113,000 atm). Fayalite transforms to Fe 2 SiO 4 spinel at pressures below 5 GPa (49,000 atm). Increasing the temperature increases
1419-452: The landowners, estate managers and farmers on issues such as public access to help minimise the impact of recreational activities on their day-to-day business. The park covers approximately 65 square kilometres (25 sq mi) and is divided as follows: 1,120 hectares (2,800 acres) of land is in public ownership: 500 hectares (1,200 acres) belong to Fife Council and 620 are owned by Scottish Water. The balance of 5,355 hectares (13,230 acres)
1462-554: The myths surrounding these mountains are ancient and enduring and some have been recorded in the oral literature or written texts; for example, in an unspecified location in Asia, there was a mountain known as "Breast Mountain" with a cave in which the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma (Da Mo) spent a long time in meditation . Travelers and cartographers in colonial times often changed the ancestral names of such hills. The mountain known to
1505-796: The north and west is formed from late Devonian rocks of the Glenvale Sandstone Formation traditionally ascribed to the Old Red Sandstone . Overlying this and forming the lower slopes of the scarp are the early Carboniferous sandstones of the Knox Pulpit and the Kinnesswood formations . Next in succession are the Pathhead Formation rocks which include cycles of sandstones, siltstones , mudstones , ironstones and limestone, formerly referred to as
1548-404: The northeastern and southern margins. The remains of Iron Age hill forts can be found around the summits of both East and West Lomond as well as at Maiden Castle, a grassy knoll that lies between the two. In more recent history, the Lomond Hills were mined for limestone, ore and lead , although there are no longer any working quarries there today. On the southwest slopes of East Lomond are
1591-399: The phase boundary, whereas the endothermic reaction hampers it. The pressure at which these phase transitions occur depends on temperature and iron content. At 800 °C (1,070 K; 1,470 °F), the pure magnesium end member, forsterite, transforms to wadsleyite at 11.8 gigapascals (116,000 atm ) and to ringwoodite at pressures above 14 GPa (138,000 atm). Increasing
1634-465: The pressure of these phase transitions. Olivine is one of the less stable common minerals on the surface according to the Goldich dissolution series . It alters into iddingsite (a combination of clay minerals, iron oxides and ferrihydrite ) readily in the presence of water. Artificially increasing the weathering rate of olivine, e.g. by dispersing fine-grained olivine on beaches, has been proposed as
1677-551: The primary land uses on the Lomond Hills are sheep grazing and commercial forestry (predominantly on the steep north slopes) and water catchment. There are six reservoirs in the Lomond Hills that were originally constructed to supply water to the rapidly growing mining towns of west Fife. The Lomond Hills lie within the boundaries of Fife Regional Park , renamed the Lomond Hills Regional Park in 2003, and have their own ranger service who work principally with
1720-606: The resistance of olivine to solid flow. Moreover, because olivine is so abundant, more water may be dissolved in olivine of the mantle than is contained in Earth's oceans. Olivine pine forest (a plant community ) is unique to Norway. It is rare and found on dry olivine ridges in the fjord districts of Sunnmøre and Nordfjord. Mg-rich olivine has also been discovered in meteorites , on the Moon and Mars , falling into infant stars, as well as on asteroid 25143 Itokawa . Such meteorites include chondrites , collections of debris from
1763-533: The two at a height of around 300 metres (980 ft). Alternative routes exist from the Bunnet Stane , the village of Falkland and the car park at the masts, high on East Lomond. The views from both summits, due to their prominence, are magnificent, stretching from the Highlands to the Borders , with the sea in the east. As well as walking, there are a number of other recreational activities that take place in
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1806-457: The well preserved remains of a limekiln and quarry. Beneath the northern slopes of the escarpment lies Falkland Estate, an area of forest (now commercial plantation), where the kings of Scotland would have hunted whilst staying at nearby Falkland Palace . The present custodian of the palace is Ninian Crichton-Stuart, brother of the Marquess of Bute. Due to the steep gradients and poor soil,
1849-458: Was verified in samples of a comet from the Stardust spacecraft in 2006. Comet-like (magnesium-rich) olivine has also been detected in the planetesimal belt around the star Beta Pictoris . Minerals in the olivine group crystallize in the orthorhombic system ( space group P bnm ) with isolated silicate tetrahedra, meaning that olivine is a nesosilicate . The structure can be described as
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