Johann Kaspar (or Caspar ) Lavater ( Alemannic German: [ˈlɒːv̥ɒtər] ; 15 November 1741 – 2 January 1801) was a Swiss poet , writer, philosopher, physiognomist and theologian.
80-791: Lavater was born in Zürich , and was educated at the Gymnasium there, where J. J. Bodmer and J. J. Breitinger were amongst his teachers. At barely twenty-one years of age, Lavater greatly distinguished himself by denouncing, in conjunction with his friend Henry Fuseli the painter, an iniquitous magistrate, who was compelled to make restitution of his ill-gotten gains. In 1769 Lavater took Holy Orders in Zurich's Zwinglian Church , and officiated until his death as deacon or pastor in churches in his native city. His oratorical fervor and genuine depth of conviction gave him great personal influence; he
160-527: A consociational state ), a term coined in conscious contrast to " nation " in the conventional linguistic or ethnic sense. The demonym Swiss (formerly in English also called Switzer ) and the name of Switzerland ultimately derive from the toponym Schwyz . Both have been widely used to refer to the Old Swiss Confederacy since the 16th century. The ethno-linguistic composition of
240-588: A vocational school until they have full job qualifications. It is also possible to get an erweiterter Realschulabschluss after 10th grade that allows the students to continue their education at the Oberstufe of a gymnasium and get an Abitur . There are two types of vocational school in Germany: the Berufsschule , a part-time vocational school and a part of Germany's dual education system , and
320-480: A 2018 revision of the law, allowing naturalization after a minimal period of residence of ten years, and in certain cases as little as five years (naturalization of spouses and children of Swiss citizens; years of residence at ages 8 to 18 count double). A further requirement is that the applicant be "well integrated" and "familiar with life in Switzerland", and must have both oral and written competence in one of
400-790: A British or American comprehensive school . However, it offers the same school-leaving certificates as the other three types—the Hauptschulabschluss (school-leaving certificate of a Hauptschule after 9th grade or in Berlin and North Rhine-Westphalia after 10th grade), the Realschulabschluss (also called Mittlere Reife , school-leaving certificate of a Realschule after 10th Grade) and Abitur (also called Hochschulreife , school-leaving certificate after 12th Grade). Students who graduate from Hauptschule or Realschule may continue their schooling at
480-463: A C-level lasting tree years). In Sweden , there are two different kinds of branches of studies: the first branch focuses on giving a vocational education while the second branch focuses on giving preparation for higher education. While students from both branches can go on to study at a university, students of the vocational branch graduate with a degree within their attended program. There are 18 national programs, 12 vocational and 6 preparatory. In
560-444: A Swiss university. The gymnasia are operated by the cantons of Switzerland , and accordingly in many cantons they are called Kantonsschule (cantonal school). In Bosnia and Herzegovina , Croatia , Montenegro , North Macedonia , Serbia , and Slovenia , a gymnasium education takes four years following a compulsory eight or nine-year elementary education and ending with a final aptitude test called Matura . In these countries,
640-473: A certain type of gymnasia called Classical Gymnasia ( klasična gimnazija ). In all of the countries, the gymnasium ( gimnazija / gjimnazi ) is generally viewed as a destination for best-performing students and as the type of school that serves primarily to prepare students for university studies, while other students go to technical/vocational schools. Therefore, gymnasia often base their admittance criteria on an entrance exam, elementary school grades, or
720-603: A combination of the two. Depending on country, the final degree (if any) is called Abitur , Artium , Diploma , Matura , Maturita or Student and it usually opens the way to professional schools directly. However, these degrees are occasionally not fully accredited internationally, so students wanting to attend a foreign university often have to submit to further exams to be permitted access to them. In countries like Austria, most university faculties accept only students from secondary schools that last four years (rather than three). This includes all Gymnasium students but only
800-547: A common foundation course can choose between different fields of study that meet the individual student's abilities and interests. The course is offered in Aasiaat , Nuuk , Sisimiut and Qaqortoq , with one in Ilulissat to be opened in 2015, latest in 2016 if approved by Inatsisartut . In Finland, the admissions to gymnasia are competitive, the accepted people comprising 51% of the age group. The gymnasia concludes with
880-546: A falling out with him, accusing him of superstition and hypocrisy. In 1788 William Blake annotated Lavater's Aphorisms of Man . Lavater published 632 aphorisms in all. Blake considered the following aphorism to be an excellent example of an aphorism. "40. Who, under pressing temptations to lie, adheres to truth, nor to the profane betrays aught of a sacred trust, is near the summit of wisdom and virtue." During his later years, Lavater's influence waned, and he incurred considerable ridicule due to his vanity. His conduct during
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#1732782602538960-431: A national language or a nationalism based on ethnicity, instead pushing for the creation of a civic nation grounded in democratic ideology, common political institutions, and shared political ritual. Political allegiance and patriotism was directed towards the cantons , not the federal level, where a spirit of rivalry and competition rather than unity prevailed. C. G. Jung advanced the view that this system of social order
1040-508: A part of the curricula of all German schools, yet not compulsory; a student or their parents or guardians can conscientiously object to taking them, in which case the student (along with those whose religion is not being taught in the school) is taught ethics or philosophy. In-state schools, a student who is not baptized into either the Catholic or Protestant faiths is allowed to choose which of these classes to take. The only exception to this
1120-419: A part of vocational high schools, in effect making Gymnasium the preferred choice for all pupils aiming for university diplomas. In Germany, other types of secondary school are called Realschule , Hauptschule and Gesamtschule . These are attended by about two thirds of the students and the first two are practically unknown in other parts of the world. A Gesamtschule largely corresponds to
1200-608: A specific focus. (This also differs from country to country.) The four traditional branches are: Curricula differ from school to school but generally include literature, mathematics, informatics , physics, chemistry, biology, geography, art (as well as crafts and design), music, history, philosophy, civics /citizenship, social sciences, and several foreign languages. Schools concentrate not only on academic subjects, but also on producing well-rounded individuals, so physical education and religion or ethics are compulsory, even in non-denominational schools which are prevalent. For example,
1280-488: A very technical and highly demanding course, being available as final exams. Usually, schools will have all classes mandatory in switching combinations for the first three or so years (with the exception of Technasium which is a free choice from the second year onward), after which students will choose their subjects in the directions of Economics and Society, Culture and Society, Nature and Health, Nature and Technology or Technology. The equivalent without classical languages
1360-642: Is a single kind of gymnasium, Den Gymnasiale Uddannelse (Ilinniarnertuunngorniarneq), that replaced the earlier Greenlandic Secondary Education Programme (GU), the Greenland Higher Commercial Examination Programme ( HHX ) and the Greenland education to Higher Technical Examination Programme ( HTX ), which were based on the Danish system. This program allows a more flexible Greenland gymnasium, where students based on
1440-510: Is also EUX, which takes four to five years and ends with both the HTX (or HHX for EUX-business) exam and status as a journeyman of a craft. Compared to the somewhat equivalent A-levels in the UK, Danish gymnasia have more mandatory subjects. The subjects are divided into levels, where A-levels usually run through all three years, B-levels usually two years and C-levels one year (apart from PE which exists as
1520-620: Is called Atheneum , and gives access to the same university studies (although some extra classes are needed when starting a degree in classical languages or theology). All are government-funded. See Voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs (in English) for the full article on Dutch "preparatory scientific education". In Denmark , Estonia , the Faroe Islands , Finland , Greenland , Iceland , Latvia , Norway and Sweden , gymnasium consists of three years, usually starting at
1600-495: Is generally viewed as a destination for the best-performing students and as the type of school that serves primarily to prepare students for university. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia , gymnázium (also spelled gymnasium ) is a type of school that provides secondary education. Secondary schools, including gymnázium , lead to the maturita exam. There are different types of gymnázium distinguished by
1680-593: Is in most cases free (and in other cases at low cost). It consists of six years, after eight years (including kindergarten ) of primary school, in which pupils study the same subjects as their German counterparts, with the addition of compulsory Ancient Greek , Latin and Klassieke Culturele Vorming (Classical Cultural Education), history of the Ancient Greek and Roman culture and literature. Schools have some freedom in choosing their specific curriculum, with for example Spanish, Philosophy and Technasium ,
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#17327826025381760-542: Is in the state of Berlin , where the subject ethics is mandatory for all students and (Christian) religious studies can only be chosen additionally. A similar situation is found in Brandenburg where the subject life skills, ethics, and religious education ( Lebensgestaltung, Ethik, Religionskunde, LER ) is the primary subject but parents/guardians or students older than 13 can choose to replace it with (Christian) religious studies or take both. The intention behind LER
1840-591: Is invoked alongsides "the Cantons" as sovereign entity, and article 1 reads "The People and the Cantons [...] form the Swiss Confederation." Article 37 still defines Swiss citizenship as inherited from communal and cantonal citizenship: "Any person who is a citizen of a commune and of the Canton to which that commune belongs is a Swiss citizen." As Swiss citizenship is entirely based on jus sanguinis ,
1920-426: Is most well known for his work in the field of physiognomy , Physiognomische Fragmente zur Beförderung der Menschenkenntnis und Menschenliebe , published between 1775 and 1778. He introduced the idea that physiognomy related to the specific character traits of individuals, rather than general types. Lavater is attributed with catalysing a golden age for silhouettes through this work in physiognomy. According to him,
2000-573: Is only two years, instead of the three required for STX, HHX, and HTX. All different types of gymnasia (except for HF) theoretically gives the same eligibility for university. However, because of the different subjects offered, students may be better qualified in an area of further study. E.g. HHX students have subjects that make them more eligible for studies such as business studies or economics at university, while HTX offer applied science and mathematics that benefit studies in Science or Engineering. There
2080-416: Is standardized at the state level and serves as an entrance qualification for universities. These can be either public (state-run, tuition-free) or private (fee-paying). The subjects taught are mathematics, Albanian language, one to three foreign languages, history, geography, computer science, the natural sciences (biology, chemistry, physics), history of art, music, philosophy, logic, physical education, and
2160-476: Is that students should get an objective insight on questions of personal development and ethics as well as on the major world religions. For younger students nearly the entire curriculum of a gymnasium is compulsory; in higher years additional subjects are available and some of the hitherto compulsory subjects can be dropped, but the choice is not as wide as in other school systems, such as US high schools. Although some specialist gymnasia have English or French as
2240-541: The Abitur examinations, which complete the Gymnasium education, after 13 years of primary school and Gymnasium combined. In addition, some states offer a 12-year curriculum leading to the Abitur . These final examinations are now centrally drafted and controlled ( Zentralabitur ) in all German states except for Rhineland-Palatinate and provide a qualification to attend any German university. In Italy originally
2320-622: The Berufsfachschule , a full-time vocational school outside the dual education system. Students who graduate from a vocational school and students who graduate with a good grade point average from a Realschule can continue their schooling at another type of German secondary school, the Fachoberschule , a vocational high school. The school leaving exam of this type of school, the Fachhochschulreife , enables
2400-837: The ginnasio indicated a type of five-year junior high school (age 11 to 16) and preparing to the three year Classical Lyceum (age 16 to 19), a high school focusing on classical studies and humanities . After the school reform that unified the junior high school system, the term ginnasio stayed to indicate the first two year of Liceo Classico , now five years long. An Italian high school student who enrolls in Liceo Classico follows this study path: Quarta Ginnasio (gymnasium fourth year, age 14), Quinta Ginnasio (gymnasium fifth year, age 15), Prima Liceo (lyceum first year, age 16), Seconda Liceo (lyceum second year, age 17) and Terza Liceo (lyceum third year, age 18). Some believe this still has some sense, since
2480-668: The European Union (0.46 million). The largest groups of Swiss descendants and nationals outside Europe are found in the United States , Brazil , and Canada . Although the modern state of Switzerland originated in 1848, the period of romantic nationalism , Switzerland is not a nation-state and the Swiss are not a single ethnic group . Rather, Switzerland is a confederacy ( Eidgenossenschaft ) or Willensnation ("nation of will", "nation by choice", that is,
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2560-467: The Faroe Islands , there are also four kinds of gymnasia, which are the equivalents of the Danish programmes: Studentaskúli (equivalent to STX), Handilsskúli (HHX), Tekniski skúli (HTX) and HF (HF). Studentaskúli and HF are usually located at the same institutions as can be seen in the name of the institute in Eysturoy : Studentaskúlin og HF-skeiðið í Eysturoy. In Greenland , there
2640-548: The Helvetians ) or Gallo-Roman , Alamannic and Rhaetic stock. Their cultural history is dominated by the Alps , and the alpine environment is often cited as an important factor in the formation of the Swiss national character. For example, the "Swiss illness", the condition of Swiss mercenaries pining for their mountainous native home, became prototypical of the medical condition of nostalgia ("homesickness") described in
2720-486: The Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. The term was derived from the classical Greek word γυμνάσιον ( gymnasion ), which was originally applied to an exercising ground in ancient Athens . Here teachers gathered and gave instruction between the hours devoted to physical exercises and sports, and thus the term became associated with and came to mean an institution of learning. This use of
2800-505: The matriculation examination , an exam whose grades are the main criteria for university admissions. In Switzerland, gymnasia ( Gymnasien , gymnases ) are selective schools that provide a three- to six-year (depending on the canton) course of advanced secondary education intended to prepare students to attend university. They conclude with a nationally standardized exam, the maturité or Maturität , often shortened to " Matura or Matur ", which if passed allows students to attend
2880-420: The place of origin rather than the place of birth is recorded in identity documents. As Swiss citizenship is tied to the cantonal citizenship associated with the "place of origin" ( Heimatort or Bürgerort "home commune, commune of citizenship"), a citizen's place of origin is inherited from his or her father (from the mother if born out of wedlock or if the father holds no citizenship). The significance of
2960-763: The 17th century. In early modern Switzerland , the Swiss Confederacy was a pact between independent states within the Holy Roman Empire . The populations of the states of Central Switzerland considered themselves ethnically or even racially separate: Martin Zeiller in Topographia Germaniae (1642) reports a racial division even within the canton of Unterwalden , the population of Obwalden being identified as " Romans ", and that of Nidwalden as " Cimbri " (viz. Germanic ), while
3040-457: The French occupation of Switzerland brought about his death. On the taking of Zürich by the French in 1799, Lavater, while trying to appease the aggressors, was shot by an infuriated grenadier; he died over a year later. The Swiss artist and illustrator, Warja Honegger-Lavater , was a direct descendant of Johann Kaspar Lavater. Gymnasium (school) Gymnasium (and variations of
3120-482: The German constitution guarantees the separation of church and state, so although religion or ethics classes are compulsory, students may choose to study a specific religion or none at all. Today, a number of other areas of specialization exist, such as gymnasia specializing in economics, technology or domestic sciences. In some countries, there is a notion of progymnasium , which is equivalent to beginning classes of
3200-559: The Netherlands ; roughly twice the ratio of Germany ). In 2003, 35,424 residents were naturalized, a number exceeding net population growth. Over the 25-year period of 1983 to 2007, 479,264 resident foreigners were naturalized, yearly numbers rising gradually from below 10,000 (0.1%) in the 1980s to above 40,000 (0.6%) in the 2000s. Compare the figure of 0.2% (140,795) in the United Kingdom (2004). The genetic composition of
3280-618: The Swiss Confederacy, and which were given the status of Swiss cantons only after the end of the Napoleonic era. These specifically include Grisons , Valais , Ticino , Vaud and Geneva . St. Gallen is a special case in a different sense, being a conglomerate of various historical regions created in 1803; in this case, patriotism may attach itself even to sub-cantonal entities, such as the Toggenburg . Similarly, due to
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3360-607: The accession of French-speaking Geneva and Neuchâtel and the partly francophone Valais and Bernese Jura (formerly part of the Prince-Bishopric of Basel ) to the Restored Swiss Confederacy in 1815. Romansh was formerly considered a group of Italian dialects , but Switzerland declared Romansh a national language in 1938 in reaction to the fascist Italian irredentism at the time. Switzerland experienced significant immigration from Italy in
3440-535: The cantonal patriotisms. Among the traditions enlisted to this end were federal sharpshooting competitions , or tirs . These competitions were one of the few recognized symbols of pan-Swiss identity prior to the creation of the 1815 Confederation and traditionally involved men from all levels of society, including the peasants, who in Romantic nationalism had become ideologically synonymous with liberty and nationhood. The Swiss national holiday , introduced in 1889,
3520-409: The case of naturalized citizens after a period of five years). The Swiss Constitution of 1874, which remained in force (with revisions) until 1999, defined Swiss citizenship as inherited from cantonal citizenship: Jeder Kantonsbürger ist Schweizer Bürger ("every citizen of a canton is a Swiss citizen"). In the preamble to the current Swiss Constitution of 1999, a "Swiss People" ( Schweizervolk )
3600-410: The character of a person could be elucidated through examining their “lines of countenance”. The most accurate of readings were facilitated by the tracing of a profile outline portrait. This contour line could be filled with black or cut from the white paper and placed over a black backing. More often, the silhouette was simply cut from black paper. In the chapter “On Shades”, Lavater wrote, “What can less
3680-472: The core ethno-linguistic groups listed above. As of 2011, 37% of total resident population of Switzerland had immigrant background. As of 2016, the most widely used foreign languages were English, Portuguese , Albanian , Serbo-Croatian and Spanish, all named as a "main language" by more than 2% of total population (respondents could name more than one "main language"). The Swiss populace historically derives from an amalgamation of Gallic (most significant
3760-1134: The degree awarded substituted for the bachelor's degree (Baccalaureate) previously awarded by a college or university so that universities in Germany became exclusively graduate schools. In the United States, the German Gymnasium curriculum was used at a number of prestigious universities, such as the University of Michigan, as a model for their undergraduate college programs. Pupils study subjects such as German, mathematics, physics, chemistry, geography, biology, arts, music, physical education, religion, history and civics /citizenship/ social sciences and computer science . They are also required to study at least two foreign languages. The usual combinations are English and French or English and Latin , although many schools make it possible to combine English with another language, most often Spanish, Ancient Greek , or Russian. Religious education classes are
3840-471: The establishment of the modern Swiss Confederation. Prior to 1915, citizens held passports issued by their cantons, the Confederation being considered as a federation of the cantons, not a state composed of natural persons as its citizens. The Swiss Constitution of 1848 regulated certain rights that the cantons were required to grant to citizens of other cantons, such as the right of residence (in
3920-429: The final test is standardized at the state level and can serve as an entrance qualification for universities. There are either public (state-run and tuition-free), religious (church-run with secular curriculum and tuition-free) or private (fee-paying) gymnasium schools in these countries. The subjects taught are mathematics, the native language, one to three foreign languages, history, geography, informatics (computers),
4000-409: The first three years of the gymnasium and instituted a unique path of studies for children aged from 12 to 14. The last two years of the gymnasium kept the previous denomination and the related scholastic curriculum for the following decades. In the Netherlands, gymnasium is the highest variant of secondary education, offering the academically most promising youngsters (top 5%) a quality education that
4080-402: The former meaning of a place for physical education was retained. Because gymnasia prepare students for university study, they are thus meant for the more academically minded students, who are sifted out between the ages of 10 and 13. In addition to the usual curriculum, students of a gymnasium often study Latin and Ancient Greek . Some gymnasia provide general education, while others have
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#17327826025384160-412: The full gymnasium, with the rights to continue education in a gymnasium . Here, the prefix pro - is equivalent to pre -, indicating that this curriculum precedes normal gymnasium studies. In Central European, Nordic , Benelux and Baltic countries, this meaning for "gymnasium" (that is a secondary school preparing the student for higher education at a university) has been the same at least since
4240-533: The graduate to start studying at a Fachhochschule ( polytechnic ) and in Hesse also at a university within the state. Students who have graduated from vocational school and have been working in a job for at least three years can go to Berufsoberschule to get either a Fachabitur (meaning they may go to university, but they can only study the subjects belonging to the "branch" (economical, technical, social) they studied in at Berufschule ) after one year, or
4320-690: The historical imperialism of the canton of Bern , there is considerable irredentism within the Bernese lands, most visibly in the Bernese Jura but to a lesser extent also in parts of the Bernese Oberland such as Hasli . Swiss citizenship is still primarily citizenship in one of the Swiss cantons , and the naturalization of foreign citizens is the privilege of the cantons. No Swiss passports were issued prior to 1915, more than 60 years after
4400-540: The image of a living man be than a shade? Yet how full of speech! Little gold, but the purest." The fame of this book, which found admirers in France and England as well as Germany, rested largely upon the handsome style of publication and the accompanying illustrations. The two principal sources from which Lavater developed his physiognomical studies were the writings of the Italian polymath Giambattista della Porta , and
4480-745: The language of instruction, at most gymnasia lessons (apart from foreign language courses) are conducted in Standard German . The number of years of instruction at a gymnasium differs between the states. It varies between six and seven years in Berlin and Brandenburg (primary school is six years in both as opposed to four years in the rest of Germany) and eight in Bavaria , Hesse and Baden-Württemberg among others. While in Saxony and Thuringia students have never been taught more than eight years in Gymnasium (by default), nearly all states now conduct
4560-622: The length of study. In the Czech Republic there are eight-year, six-year, and four-year types, and in Slovakia there are eight-year and four-year types, of which the latter is more common. In both countries, there are also bilingual (Czech or Slovak with English, French, Spanish, Italian, German, or Russian; in Slovakia, bilingual gymnáziums are five-year) and private gymnáziums . German gymnasia are selective schools. They offer
4640-627: The most academically promising youngsters a quality education that is free in all state-run schools (and generally not above €50/month cost in Church-run schools, though there are some expensive private schools). Gymnasia may expel students who academically under-perform their classmates or behave in a way that is often seen as undesirable and unacceptable. Historically, the German Gymnasium also included in its overall accelerated curriculum post-secondary education at college level and
4720-471: The name of gymnasium. By the 20th century, this practice was followed in almost the entire Austrian-Hungarian , German , and Russian Empires . In the modern era, many countries which have gymnasia were once part of these three empires. In Albania, a gymnasium ( Albanian : Gjimnaz ) education takes three years following a compulsory nine-year elementary education and ending with a final aptitude test called Albanian : Matura Shtetërore . The final test
4800-464: The national languages of Switzerland. The federal law just specifies minimal requirements for naturalization, and cantons are free to introduce more stringent requirements. In practice, the cantons delegate the actual procedure of naturalization to the communes . With 25% of the population resident aliens, Switzerland has one of the highest ratios of non-naturalized inhabitants in Europe (comparable to
4880-420: The natural sciences (biology, chemistry, physics), history of art, music, philosophy, logic, physical education, and the social sciences (sociology, ethics or religious education, psychology, politics, and economy). Religious studies are optional. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia and North Macedonia, Latin is also a mandatory subject in all gymnasia, just as Ancient Greek is, with Latin, in
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#17327826025384960-714: The normal Abitur (after two years), which gives them complete access to universities. Swiss people The Swiss people ( German : die Schweizer , French : les Suisses , Italian : gli Svizzeri , Romansh : ils Svizzers ) are the citizens of the multi-ethnic Swiss Confederation (Switzerland) regardless of ethno-cultural background or people of self-identified Swiss ancestry . The number of Swiss nationals has grown from 1.7 million in 1815 to 8.7 million in 2020. More than 1.5 million Swiss citizens hold multiple citizenship . About 11% of citizens live abroad (0.8 million, of whom 0.6 million hold multiple citizenship). About 60% of those living abroad reside in
5040-451: The observations made by Sir Thomas Browne in his Religio Medici (translated into German in 1748 and praised by Lavater). Lavater's studies have also been related to Franz Xaver Messerschmidt's work as a sculptor. His work being mentioned by Ernst Gombrich described as a physiognomical fallacy. As a poet , Lavater published Christliche Lieder (1776–1780) and two epics , Jesus Messias (1780) and Joseph von Arimathia (1794), in
5120-537: The people of Schwyz were identified as of Swedish ancestry , and the people of Uri were identified as " Huns or Goths ". Modern Switzerland is atypical in its successful political integration of a multiethnic and multilingual populace, and is often cited as a model for new efforts at creating unification, as in the European Union's frequent invocation of the Swiss Confederate model. Because
5200-548: The place of origin outside of the naturalization procedure has been gradually abolished in the early 21st century. Since 2012, the municipality or canton of a citizen's place of origin is no longer responsible for providing social welfare to that citizen. Since 2013, a woman no longer acquires the place of origin of her husband upon marriage. While the cantons are responsible for naturalization, federal Swiss nationality law regulates minimal requirements necessary for naturalization. These requirements were significantly reduced in
5280-492: The sciences. In the last few decades, more autonomy has been granted to schools, and various types have been developed, focusing on sports, music, or economics, for example. In Belarus, gymnasium is the highest variant of secondary education, which provides advanced knowledge in various subjects. The number of years of instruction at a gymnasium is 11. However, it is possible to cover all required credits in 11 years, by taking additional subjects each semester. In Belarus, gymnasium
5360-428: The social sciences (sociology, ethics, psychology, politics and economy). The gymnasium is generally viewed as a destination for the best-performing students and as the type of school that serves primarily to prepare students for university, while other students go to technical/vocational schools. Therefore, gymnasia often base their admittance criteria on an entrance exam, elementary school grades, or some combination of
5440-401: The style of Klopstock . More relevant to the religious temperament of Lavater's times are his introspective Aussichten in die Ewigkeit (4 volumes 1768-1778), Geheimes Tagebuch von einem Beobachter seiner selbst (2 volumes, 1772–1773), and Pontius Pilatus, oder der Mensch in allen Gestalten (4 volumes, 1782–1785). From 1774 on, Goethe was intimately acquainted with Lavater, but later had
5520-574: The term did not prevail among the Romans , but was revived during the Renaissance in Italy , and from there passed into the Netherlands and Germany during the 15th century. In 1538, Johannes Sturm founded at Strasbourg the school which became the model of the modern German gymnasium. In 1812, a Prussian regulation ordered all schools with the right to send their students to the university to bear
5600-410: The territories of modern Switzerland includes the following components: The core Eight Cantons of the Swiss Confederacy were entirely Alemannic-speaking, and German speakers remain the majority. However, from as early as the 15th century, parts of French-speaking Vaud and Italian-speaking Ticino were acquired as subject territories by Bern and Uri, respectively. The Swiss Romandie was formed by
5680-484: The two-year ginnasio has a differently oriented curriculum from the Liceo . Ginnasio students spend the majority of their schooling studying Greek and Latin grammar, laying the bases for the "higher" and more in depth set of studies of the Liceo , such as Greek and Latin literature and philosophy. In July 1940 the fascist Minister of National Education Giuseppe Bottai got a bill of law approved that abolished
5760-555: The two. In Austria the Gymnasium has two stages, from the age of 11 to 14, and from 15 to 18, concluding with Matura . Historically, three types existed. The Humanistisches Gymnasium focuses on Ancient Greek and Latin . The Neusprachliches Gymnasium puts its focus on actively spoken languages. The usual combination is English, French, and Latin; sometimes French can be swapped with another foreign language (like Italian, Spanish or Russian). The Realgymnasium emphasizes
5840-466: The various populations of Switzerland share language, ethnicity, and religion not with each other but with the major European powers between whom Switzerland during the modern history of Europe found itself positioned, a policy of domestic plurality in conjunction with international neutrality became a matter of self-preservation. Consequently, the Swiss elites during the period of the formation of nation states throughout Europe did not attempt to impose
5920-571: The very late 19th and early 20th century, such that in 1910 that accounted for some 10% of the Swiss population. This immigration was halted by the Great Depression and WWII. It restarted after the war ended. As elsewhere in Western Europe, immigration to Switzerland has increased dramatically since the 1960s, so that a large proportion of the resident population of Switzerland are now not descended or only partially descended from
6000-609: The word; pl. gymnasia ) is a term in various European languages for a secondary school that prepares students for higher education at a university . It is comparable to the US English term preparatory high school or the British term grammar school . Before the 20th century, the gymnasium system was a widespread feature of educational systems throughout many European countries. The word γυμνάσιον ( gumnásion ), from Greek γυμνός ( gumnós ) 'naked' or 'nude',
6080-716: The year the students turn 16 years old after nine or ten years of primary school. In Lithuania , the gymnasium usually consists of four years of schooling starting at the age of 15–16, the last year roughly corresponding to the first year of college . Most gymnasia in the Nordic countries are free. Universal student grants are also available in certain countries for students over 18. In Denmark (see also Gymnasium (Denmark) ), there are four kinds of gymnasia: STX (Regular Examination Programme), HHX (Higher Business Examination Programme), HTX (Higher Technical Examination Programme) and HF (Higher Preparatory Examination Programme). HF
6160-624: Was another symbol of national identity at the federal level. The bonfires associated with the national holiday have become so customary since then that they have displaced the Funken traditions of greater antiquity. Identification with the national symbolism relating to the Old Swiss Confederacy was especially difficult for the cantons which had been joined to the Helvetic Republic in 1798 without any prior membership in
6240-551: Was extensively consulted as a casuist , and was welcomed with enthusiasm on his journeys throughout Germany. His writings on mysticism were widely popular as well. In the same year (1769), Lavater tried to convert Moses Mendelssohn to Christianity, by sending him a translation of Charles Bonnet 's Palingénésie philosophique , and demanding that he either publicly refute Bonnet's arguments or convert. Mendelssohn refused to do either, and many prominent intellectuals took Mendelssohn's side, including Lichtenberg and Herder . Lavater
6320-587: Was first used in Ancient Greece , in the sense of a place for both physical and intellectual education of young men. The latter meaning of a place of intellectual education persisted in many European languages (including Albanian , Bulgarian , Czech , Dutch , Estonian , Greek , German , Hungarian , Macedonian , Polish , Russian , Scandinavian languages , Croatian , Serbian , Slovak , Slovenian and Ukrainian ), whereas in other languages, like English ( gymnasium , gym ) and Spanish ( gimnasio ),
6400-472: Was one of a "chronic state of mitigated civil war" which put Switzerland ahead of the world in a civilizatory process of "introverting" warlike aggression. A similar view is attributed to Gottfried Keller , who is cited to the effect that the Swiss Confederacy could not exist without the endemic rivalry between cantons. From the 19th century onwards, there were conscious attempts to foster a federal "Pan-Swiss" national identity that would replace or alleviate
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