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102-547: Langebaanweg is a town on the southwest coast of South Africa , in Western Cape Province . It is the location of the air force base AFB Langebaanweg . Langebaanweg has been an important mining center, with its main minerals consisting of phosphorites , primarily calcium phosphate . The mining uncovered fossils dating from the late Miocene and early Pliocene, approximately 5 million years ago. Fossil species found there include invertebrates and also

204-534: A navy and some form of coast guard . Coasts, especially those with beaches and warm water, attract tourists often leading to the development of seaside resort communities. In many island nations such as those of the Mediterranean , South Pacific Ocean and Caribbean , tourism is central to the economy . Coasts offer recreational activities such as swimming, fishing, surfing, boating, and sunbathing . Growth management and coastal management can be

306-624: A carbon-rich material) can be incorporated into construction or a range of other durable products, thus sequestering its carbon over years or even centuries. In industrial production, engineers typically capture carbon dioxide from emissions from power plants or factories. For example in the United States , the Executive Order 13990 (officially titled "Protecting Public Health and the Environment and Restoring Science to Tackle

408-478: A challenge for coastal local authorities who often struggle to provide the infrastructure required by new residents, and poor management practices of construction often leave these communities and infrastructure vulnerable to processes like coastal erosion and sea level rise . In many of these communities, management practices such as beach nourishment or when the coastal infrastructure is no longer financially sustainable, managed retreat to remove communities from

510-464: A large role in carbon sequestration (high confidence) with high resilience to disturbances and additional benefits such as enhanced biodiversity." Impacts on temperature are affected by the location of the forest. For example, reforestation in boreal or subarctic regions has less impact on climate. This is because it substitutes a high- albedo , snow-dominated region with a lower-albedo forest canopy. By contrast, tropical reforestation projects lead to

612-655: A much higher capacity for carbon sequestration than many terrestrial ecosystems , and as such can play a critical role in the near-future to help mitigate climate change effects by uptake of atmospheric anthropogenic carbon dioxide . However, the economic importance of coasts makes many of these communities vulnerable to climate change , which causes increases in extreme weather and sea level rise, as well as related issues like coastal erosion , saltwater intrusion , and coastal flooding . Other coastal issues, such as marine pollution , marine debris , coastal development, and marine ecosystem destruction, further complicate

714-431: A portion of the carbon removed from logged forests ends up as durable goods and buildings. The remainder ends up as sawmill by-products such as pulp, paper, and pallets. If all new construction globally utilized 90% wood products, largely via adoption of mass timber in low rise construction, this could sequester 700 million net tons of carbon per year. This is in addition to the elimination of carbon emissions from

816-426: A positive change such as the formation of clouds . These clouds then reflect the sunlight , lowering temperatures. Planting trees in tropical climates with wet seasons has another advantage. In such a setting, trees grow more quickly (fixing more carbon) because they can grow year-round. Trees in tropical climates have, on average, larger, brighter, and more abundant leaves than non-tropical climates. A study of

918-653: A proper name to the coast of the Ligurian Sea , in the form riviera ligure , then shortened to riviera . Historically, the Ligurian Riviera extended from Capo Corvo (Punta Bianca) south of Genoa , north and west into what is now French territory past Monaco and sometimes as far as Marseilles . Today, this coast is divided into the Italian Riviera and the French Riviera , although

1020-435: A provider of sediment for coastlines of tropical islands. Like the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change. The Earth 's natural processes, particularly sea level rises , waves and various weather phenomena, have resulted in the erosion , accretion and reshaping of coasts as well as flooding and creation of continental shelves and drowned river valleys ( rias ). More and more of

1122-456: A shoreline configuration. Swash is the shoreward flow after the break, backwash is the water flow back down the beach. The relative strength of flow in the swash and backwash determines what size grains are deposited or eroded. This is dependent on how the wave breaks and the slope of the shore. Depending on the form of the breaking wave, its energy can carry granular material up the beach and deposit it, or erode it by carrying more material down

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1224-405: A sink to a source. With rising temperatures comes an increase in greenhouse gasses from wetlands especially locations with permafrost . When this permafrost melts it increases the available oxygen and water in the soil. Because of this, bacteria in the soil would create large amounts of carbon dioxide and methane to be released into the atmosphere. The link between climate change and wetlands

1326-425: A slightly different way in discussions of legal and economic boundaries (see territorial waters and international waters ) or when considering the geography of coastal landforms or the ecological systems operating through the continental shelf ( marine coastal ecosystems ). The research on coastal waters often divides into these separate areas too. The dynamic fluid nature of the ocean means that all components of

1428-532: A tree plantation. Therefore, the farming of bamboo timber may have significant carbon sequestration potential. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reported that: "The total carbon stock in forests decreased from 668 gigatonnes in 1990 to 662 gigatonnes in 2020". In Canada's boreal forests as much as 80% of the total carbon is stored in the soils as dead organic matter. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report says: "Secondary forest regrowth and restoration of degraded forests and non-forest ecosystems can play

1530-574: A type of rhinoceros , as well as a mousebird and a diving petrel . The West Coast Fossil Park includes displays of fossils found in a former phosphate mine. Brett Hendey, formally of the Iziko South African Museum , documented the significance of the Langebaanweg fossil sites. Langebaanweg is also notable as the birthplace of former England cricketer Allan Lamb , who played 79 Tests for his adopted country as well as in

1632-529: A wide range of sessile animals (e.g. mussels , starfish , barnacles ) and various kinds of seaweeds . In physical oceanography , a shore is the wider fringe that is geologically modified by the action of the body of water past and present, while the beach is at the edge of the shore, representing the intertidal zone where there is one. Along tropical coasts with clear, nutrient-poor water, coral reefs can often be found between depths of 1–50 m (3.3–164.0 ft). According to an atlas prepared by

1734-411: Is carbon sequestration . The overall goal of carbon farming is to create a net loss of carbon from the atmosphere. This is done by increasing the rate at which carbon is sequestered into soil and plant material. One option is to increase the soil's organic matter content. This can also aid plant growth, improve soil water retention capacity and reduce fertilizer use. Sustainable forest management

1836-521: Is charcoal created by pyrolysis of biomass waste. The resulting material is added to a landfill or used as a soil improver to create terra preta . Adding biochar may increase the soil-C stock for the long term and so mitigate global warming by offsetting the atmospheric C (up to 9.5 Gigatons C annually). In the soil, the biochar carbon is unavailable for oxidation to CO 2 and consequential atmospheric release. However concerns have been raised about biochar potentially accelerating release of

1938-404: Is a conservation effort to restore prairie lands that were destroyed due to industrial, agricultural , commercial, or residential development. The primary aim is to return areas and ecosystems to their previous state before their depletion. The mass of SOC able to be stored in these restored plots is typically greater than the previous crop, acting as a more effective carbon sink. Biochar

2040-541: Is a coastline that has experienced a fall in sea level, because of either a global sea-level change, or local uplift. Emergent coastlines are identifiable by the coastal landforms , which are above the high tide mark, such as raised beaches . In contrast, a submergent coastline is one where the sea level has risen, due to a global sea-level change, local subsidence , or isostatic rebound . Submergent coastlines are identifiable by their submerged, or "drowned" landforms, such as rias (drowned valleys) and fjords According to

2142-433: Is an important carbon sink ; 14.5% of the world's soil carbon is found in wetlands, while only 5.5% of the world's land is composed of wetlands. Not only are wetlands a great carbon sink, they have many other benefits like collecting floodwater, filtering out air and water pollutants, and creating a home for numerous birds, fish, insects, and plants. Climate change could alter wetland soil carbon storage, changing it from

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2244-487: Is another tool that is used in carbon farming. Carbon farming is one component of climate-smart agriculture . It is also one way to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Agricultural methods for carbon farming include adjusting how tillage and livestock grazing is done, using organic mulch or compost , working with biochar and terra preta , and changing the crop types. Methods used in forestry include reforestation and bamboo farming . Prairie restoration

2346-528: Is connected to marine pollution which can occur from a number of sources: Marine debris (garbage and industrial debris); the transportation of petroleum in tankers , increasing the probability of large oil spills ; small oil spills created by large and small vessels, which flush bilge water into the ocean. Marine pollution occurs when substances used or spread by humans, such as industrial , agricultural and residential waste , particles , noise , excess carbon dioxide or invasive organisms enter

2448-575: Is converted from natural land or semi-natural land, such as forests, woodlands, grasslands, steppes, and savannas, the SOC content in the soil reduces by about 30–40%. This loss is due to harvesting , as plants contain carbon. When land use changes , the carbon in the soil will either increase or decrease, and this change will continue until the soil reaches a new equilibrium. Deviations from this equilibrium can also be affected by variated climate. The decreasing of SOC content can be counteracted by increasing

2550-433: Is disturbed the carbon stored in the plants and sediments will be released back into the atmosphere, and the ecosystem will no longer function as a carbon sink. Additionally, some wetlands can release non-CO 2 greenhouse gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide which could offset potential climate benefits. The amounts of carbon sequestered via blue carbon by wetlands can also be difficult to measure. Wetland soil

2652-415: Is extremely important to geologists. These provide vital clues for reconstructing the geography of ancient continents ( paleogeography ). The locations of these beds show the extent of ancient seas at particular points in geological time, and provide clues to the magnitudes of tides in the distant past. Sediments deposited in the shoreface are preserved as lenses of sandstone in which the upper part of

2754-408: Is more important. Macrotidal coasts lack barrier islands and lagoons , and are characterized by funnel-shaped estuaries containing sand ridges aligned with tidal currents. Wave action is much more important for determining bedforms of sediments deposited along mesotidal and microtidal coasts than in macrotidal coasts. Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger

2856-423: Is moved along the coastline by the waves. This forms an abrasion or cliffed coast . Sediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located in the case of coastlines that have estuaries. Today, riverine deposition at the coast is often blocked by dams and other human regulatory devices, which remove the sediment from the stream by causing it to be deposited inland. Coral reefs are

2958-451: Is much lower than carbon capture from e.g. power plant emissions. CO 2 fixation into woody biomass is a natural process carried out through photosynthesis . This is a nature-based solution and methods being trialled include the use of "wood vaults" to store the wood-containing carbon under oxygen-free conditions. In 2022 a certification organization published methodologies for biomass burial. Other biomass storage proposals have included

3060-432: Is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical, and physical processes. These processes can be accelerated for example through changes in land use and agricultural practices, called carbon farming . Artificial processes have also been devised to produce similar effects. This approach is called carbon capture and storage . It involves using technology to capture and sequester (store) CO 2 that

3162-664: Is part of the natural carbon cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere , pedosphere (soil), geosphere , hydrosphere , and atmosphere of Earth . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical, or physical processes, and stored in long-term reservoirs. Plants, such as forests and kelp beds , absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow, and bind it into biomass . However, these biological stores are considered volatile carbon sinks as long-term sequestration cannot be guaranteed. Events such as wildfires or disease, economic pressures, and changing political priorities can result in

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3264-422: Is produced from human activities underground or under the sea bed. Plants, such as forests and kelp beds , absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow, and bind it into biomass. However, these biological stores may be temporary carbon sinks , as long-term sequestration cannot be guaranteed. Wildfires , disease, economic pressures, and changing political priorities may release the sequestered carbon back into

3366-459: Is still not fully known. It is also not clear how restored wetlands manage carbon while still being a contributing source of methane. However, preserving these areas would help prevent further release of carbon into the atmosphere. Despite occupying only 3% of the global land area, peatlands hold approximately 30% of the carbon in our ecosystem - twice the amount stored in the world's forests. Most peatlands are situated in high latitude areas of

3468-424: Is that forests can turn from sinks to carbon sources. In 2019 forests took up a third less carbon than they did in the 1990s, due to higher temperatures, droughts and deforestation . The typical tropical forest may become a carbon source by the 2060s. Researchers have found that, in terms of environmental services, it is better to avoid deforestation than to allow for deforestation to subsequently reforest, as

3570-449: Is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by continual or enhanced biological processes. This form of carbon sequestration occurs through increased rates of photosynthesis via land-use practices such as reforestation and sustainable forest management . Land-use changes that enhance natural carbon capture have the potential to capture and store large amounts of carbon dioxide each year. These include

3672-412: Is the counterintuitive observation that the coastline of a landmass does not have a well-defined length. This results from the fractal curve –like properties of coastlines; i.e., the fact that a coastline typically has a fractal dimension . Although the "paradox of length" was previously noted by Hugo Steinhaus , the first systematic study of this phenomenon was by Lewis Fry Richardson , and it

3774-429: Is the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide." Therefore, the difference between carbon sequestration and carbon capture and storage (CCS) is sometimes blurred in the media. The IPCC, however, defines CCS as "a process in which a relatively pure stream of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from industrial sources is separated, treated and transported to a long-term storage location". Carbon sequestration

3876-477: Is the process of storing carbon in a carbon pool . It plays a crucial role in limiting climate change by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . There are two main types of carbon sequestration: biologic (also called biosequestration ) and geologic. Biologic carbon sequestration is a naturally occurring process as part of the carbon cycle . Humans can enhance it through deliberate actions and use of technology. Carbon dioxide ( CO 2 )

3978-492: Is used in different ways in the literature and media. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines it as "The process of storing carbon in a carbon pool". Subsequently, a pool is defined as "a reservoir in the Earth system where elements, such as carbon and nitrogen, reside in various chemical forms for a period of time". The United States Geological Survey (USGS) defines carbon sequestration as follows: "Carbon sequestration

4080-589: The 1987 and 1992 Cricket World Cup Finals. Coast Coasts are important zones in natural ecosystems , often home to a wide range of biodiversity . On land, they harbor important ecosystems such as freshwater or estuarine wetlands , which are important for bird populations and other terrestrial animals . In wave-protected areas, they harbor salt marshes , mangroves or seagrasses , all of which can provide nursery habitat for fin fish , shellfish , and other aquatic animals . Rocky shores are usually found along exposed coasts and provide habitat for

4182-462: The Aegean Sea . The following articles describe some coastal landforms: "Coastal waters" (or "coastal seas") is a rather general term used differently in different contexts, ranging geographically from the waters within a few kilometers of the coast, through to the entire continental shelf which may stretch for more than a hundred kilometers from land. Thus the term coastal waters is used in

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4284-456: The US EPA considers this region to extend much further offshore. "Coastal waters" has specific meanings in the context of commercial coastal shipping , and somewhat different meanings in the context of naval littoral warfare . Oceanographers and marine biologists have yet other takes. Coastal waters have a wide range of marine habitats from enclosed estuaries to the open waters of

4386-617: The United Nations , about 44% of the human population lives within 150 km (93 mi) of the sea as of 2013 . Due to its importance in society and its high population concentrations, the coast is important for major parts of the global food and economic system, and they provide many ecosystem services to humankind. For example, important human activities happen in port cities. Coastal fisheries (commercial, recreational, and subsistence) and aquaculture are major economic activities and create jobs, livelihoods, and protein for

4488-686: The Western Interior Seaway , a shallow sea that flooded central North America during the late Cretaceous Period (about 100 to 66 million years ago). These are beautifully exposed along the Book Cliffs of Utah and Colorado . The following articles describe the various geologic processes that affect a coastal zone: Larger animals that live in coastal areas include puffins , sea turtles and rockhopper penguins , among many others. Sea snails and various kinds of barnacles live on rocky coasts and scavenge on food deposited by

4590-436: The girth of 70,000 trees across Africa has shown that tropical forests fix more carbon dioxide pollution than previously realized. The research suggested almost one-fifth of fossil fuel emissions are absorbed by forests across Africa, Amazonia and Asia . Simon Lewis stated, "Tropical forest trees are absorbing about 18% of the carbon dioxide added to the atmosphere each year from burning fossil fuels, substantially buffering

4692-500: The greenhouse gas carbon dioxide from the air, forests function as terrestrial carbon sinks , meaning they store large amounts of carbon in the form of biomass, encompassing roots, stems, branches, and leaves. Throughout their lifespan, trees continue to sequester carbon, storing atmospheric CO 2 long-term. Sustainable forest management , afforestation , reforestation are therefore important contributions to climate change mitigation. An important consideration in such efforts

4794-469: The ocean and cause harmful effects there. The majority of this waste (80%) comes from land-based activity, although marine transportation significantly contributes as well. It is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from land sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide. Since most inputs come from land, either via

4896-596: The ocean . Floating oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and on coastlines, frequently washing aground, when it is known as beach litter or tidewrack. Deliberate disposal of wastes at sea is called ocean dumping . Naturally occurring debris, such as driftwood and drift seeds , are also present. With the increasing use of plastic , human influence has become an issue as many types of (petrochemical) plastics do not biodegrade quickly, as would natural or organic materials. The largest single type of plastic pollution (~10%) and majority of large plastic in

4998-444: The rivers , sewage or the atmosphere, it means that continental shelves are more vulnerable to pollution. Air pollution is also a contributing factor by carrying off iron, carbonic acid, nitrogen , silicon, sulfur, pesticides or dust particles into the ocean. The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff , wind-blown debris , and dust. These nonpoint sources are largely due to runoff that enters

5100-595: The Climate Crisis") from 2021, includes several mentions of carbon sequestration via conservation and restoration of carbon sink ecosystems, such as wetlands and forests. The document emphasizes the importance of farmers, landowners, and coastal communities in carbon sequestration. It directs the Treasury Department to promote conservation of carbon sinks through market based mechanisms. Biological carbon sequestration (also called biosequestration )

5202-773: The French use the term "Riviera" to refer to the Italian Riviera and call the French portion the "Côte d'Azur". As a result of the fame of the Ligurian rivieras, the term came into English to refer to any shoreline, especially one that is sunny, topographically diverse and popular with tourists. Such places using the term include the Australian Riviera in Queensland and the Turkish Riviera along

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5304-546: The United Nations has declared 2021–2030 the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration , but restoration of coastal ecosystems has received insufficient attention. Since coasts are constantly changing, a coastline's exact perimeter cannot be determined; this measurement challenge is called the coastline paradox . The term coastal zone is used to refer to a region where interactions of sea and land processes occur. Both

5406-415: The amount in the atmosphere and much more than in vegetation. Researchers have found that rising temperatures can lead to population booms in soil microbes, converting stored carbon into carbon dioxide. In laboratory experiments heating soil, fungi-rich soils released less carbon dioxide than other soils. Following carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) absorption from the atmosphere, plants deposit organic matter into

5508-467: The atmosphere's carbon pool in 2019. Life expectancy of forests varies throughout the world, influenced by tree species, site conditions, and natural disturbance patterns. In some forests, carbon may be stored for centuries, while in other forests, carbon is released with frequent stand replacing fires. Forests that are harvested prior to stand replacing events allow for the retention of carbon in manufactured forest products such as lumber . However, only

5610-402: The atmosphere. Carbon dioxide that has been removed from the atmosphere can also be stored in the Earth's crust by injecting it underground, or in the form of insoluble carbonate salts. The latter process is called mineral sequestration . These methods are considered non-volatile because they not only remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere but also sequester it indefinitely. This means

5712-571: The average sea level rose by 15–25 cm (6–10 in), with an increase of 2.3 mm (0.091 in) per year since the 1970s. This was faster than the sea level had ever risen over at least the past 3,000 years. The rate accelerated to 4.62 mm (0.182 in)/yr for the decade 2013–2022. Climate change due to human activities is the main cause. Between 1993 and 2018, melting ice sheets and glaciers accounted for 44% of sea level rise , with another 42% resulting from thermal expansion of water . International attention to address

5814-417: The average wind wave and swell conditions are relatively mild. Low energy coasts typically change slowly, and tend to be depositional environments. High energy coasts are exposed to the direct impact of waves and storms, and are generally erosional environments. High energy storm events can make large changes to a coastline, and can move significant amounts of sediment over a short period, sometimes changing

5916-421: The carbon already present in the soil. Terra preta , an anthropogenic , high-carbon soil, is also being investigated as a sequestration mechanism. By pyrolysing biomass, about half of its carbon can be reduced to charcoal , which can persist in the soil for centuries, and makes a useful soil amendment, especially in tropical soils ( biochar or agrichar ). Burying biomass (such as trees) directly mimics

6018-419: The carbon capture and storage approaches, carbon sequestration refers to the storage component. Artificial carbon storage technologies can be applied, such as gaseous storage in deep geological formations (including saline formations and exhausted gas fields), and solid storage by reaction of CO 2 with metal oxides to produce stable carbonates . For carbon to be sequestered artificially (i.e. not using

6120-410: The carbon found in the atmosphere and 4-fold of that found in living plants and animals. About 70% of the global soil organic carbon in non-permafrost areas is found in the deeper soil within the upper metre and is stabilized by mineral-organic associations. Carbon farming is a set of agricultural methods that aim to store carbon in the soil , crop roots, wood and leaves. The technical term for this

6222-496: The carbon input. This can be done with several strategies, e.g. leave harvest residues on the field, use manure as fertilizer, or include perennial crops in the rotation. Perennial crops have a larger below-ground biomass fraction, which increases the SOC content. Perennial crops reduce the need for tillage and thus help mitigate soil erosion, and may help increase soil organic matter. Globally, soils are estimated to contain >8,580 gigatons of organic carbon, about ten times

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6324-419: The carbon is "locked away" for thousands to millions of years. To enhance carbon sequestration processes in oceans the following chemical or physical technologies have been proposed: ocean fertilization , artificial upwelling , basalt storage, mineralization and deep-sea sediments, and adding bases to neutralize acids. However, none have achieved large scale application so far. Large-scale seaweed farming on

6426-482: The carbon must not return to the atmosphere from biomass burning or rotting when the trees die. To this end, land allotted to the trees must not be converted to other uses. Alternatively, the wood from them must itself be sequestered, e.g., via biochar , bioenergy with carbon capture and storage , landfill or stored by use in construction. Earth offers enough room to plant an additional 0.9 billion ha of tree canopy cover, although this estimate has been criticized, and

6528-461: The coast of Wales and other countries. Coastal fish , also called inshore fish or neritic fish, inhabit the sea between the shoreline and the edge of the continental shelf . Since the continental shelf is usually less than 200 metres (660 ft) deep, it follows that pelagic coastal fish are generally epipelagic fish , inhabiting the sunlit epipelagic zone . Coastal fish can be contrasted with oceanic fish or offshore fish , which inhabit

6630-812: The coast. Estuarine and marine coastal ecosystems are both marine ecosystems . Together, these ecosystems perform the four categories of ecosystem services in a variety of ways: The provisioning services include forest products, marine products, fresh water , raw materials, biochemical and genetic resources. Regulating services include carbon sequestration (contributing to climate change mitigation ) as well as waste treatment and disease regulation and buffer zones. Supporting services of coastal ecosystems include nutrient cycling , biologically mediated habitats and primary production . Cultural services of coastal ecosystems include inspirational aspects, recreation and tourism , science and education. According to one principle of classification, an emergent coastline

6732-513: The conservation, management, and restoration of ecosystems such as forests, peatlands , wetlands , and grasslands , in addition to carbon sequestration methods in agriculture. Methods and practices exist to enhance soil carbon sequestration in both agriculture and forestry . Forests are an important part of the global carbon cycle because trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis . Therefore, they play an important role in climate change mitigation . By removing

6834-567: The continental shelf. Similarly, the term littoral zone has no single definition. It is the part of a sea , lake , or river that is close to the shore . In coastal environments, the littoral zone extends from the high water mark , which is rarely inundated, to shoreline areas that are permanently submerged . Coastal waters can be threatened by coastal eutrophication and harmful algal blooms . The identification of bodies of rock formed from sediments deposited in shoreline and nearshore environments (shoreline and nearshore facies )

6936-555: The deep seas beyond the continental shelves. Many coastal areas are famous for their kelp beds. Kelp is a fast-growing seaweed that can grow up to half a meter a day in ideal conditions. Mangroves , seagrasses , macroalgal beds, and salt marsh are important coastal vegetation types in tropical and temperate environments respectively. Restinga is another type of coastal vegetation. Coasts also face many human-induced environmental impacts and coastal development hazards . The most important ones are: The pollution of coastlines

7038-412: The displaced construction material such as steel or concrete, which are carbon-intense to produce. A meta-analysis found that mixed species plantations would increase carbon storage alongside other benefits of diversifying planted forests. Although a bamboo forest stores less total carbon than a mature forest of trees, a bamboo plantation sequesters carbon at a much faster rate than a mature forest or

7140-614: The future than keeping existing forests intact. It takes much longer − several decades − for the benefits for global warming to manifest to the same carbon sequestration benefits from mature trees in tropical forests and hence from limiting deforestation. Therefore, scientists consider "the protection and recovery of carbon-rich and long-lived ecosystems, especially natural forests" to be "the major climate solution ". The planting of trees on marginal crop and pasture lands helps to incorporate carbon from atmospheric CO 2 into biomass . For this carbon sequestration process to succeed

7242-789: The human uses of the coast and threaten coastal ecosystems. The interactive effects of climate change, habitat destruction , overfishing , and water pollution (especially eutrophication ) have led to the demise of coastal ecosystem around the globe. This has resulted in population collapse of fisheries stocks, loss of biodiversity , increased invasion of alien species , and loss of healthy habitats. International attention to these issues has been captured in Sustainable Development Goal 14 "Life Below Water", which sets goals for international policy focused on preserving marine coastal ecosystems and supporting more sustainable economic practices for coastal communities. Likewise,

7344-425: The latter leads to irreversible effects in terms of biodiversity loss and soil degradation . Furthermore, the probability that legacy carbon will be released from soil is higher in younger boreal forest. Global greenhouse gas emissions caused by damage to tropical rainforests may have been substantially underestimated until around 2019. Additionally, the effects of afforestation and reforestation will be farther in

7446-410: The majority of coastal human populations. Other coastal spaces like beaches and seaside resorts generate large revenues through tourism . Marine coastal ecosystems can also provide protection against sea level rise and tsunamis . In many countries, mangroves are the primary source of wood for fuel (e.g. charcoal ) and building material. Coastal ecosystems like mangroves and seagrasses have

7548-621: The margins of the continental shelves , make up about 7 percent of the Earth's oceans, but at least 85% of commercially harvested fish depend on coastal environments during at least part of their life cycle. As of October 2010, about 2.86% of exclusive economic zones were part of marine protected areas . The definition of coasts varies. Marine scientists think of the "wet" (aquatic or intertidal ) vegetated habitats as being coastal ecosystems (including seagrass, salt marsh etc.) whilst some terrestrial scientists might only think of coastal ecosystems as purely terrestrial plants that live close to

7650-587: The microplastics go through the water filtration system and into the ocean, but because of their small size they are likely to escape capture by the preliminary treatment screens on wastewater plants. These beads are harmful to the organisms in the ocean, especially filter feeders, because they can easily ingest the plastic and become sick. The microplastics are such a concern because it is difficult to clean them up due to their size, so humans can try to avoid using these harmful plastics by purchasing products that use environmentally safe exfoliates. Between 1901 and 2018,

7752-507: The more resistant rocks erode more slowly, remaining as headlands or outcroppings . Parts of a coastline can be categorised as high energy coast or low energy coast. The distinguishing characteristics of a high energy coast are that the average wave energy is relatively high so that erosion of small grained material tends to exceed deposition, and consequently landforms like cliffs, headlands and wave-cut terraces develop. Low energy coasts are generally sheltered from waves, or in regions where

7854-446: The natural processes of the carbon cycle) it must first be captured, or it must be significantly delayed or prevented from being re-released into the atmosphere (by combustion, decay, etc.) from an existing carbon-rich material, by being incorporated into an enduring usage (such as in construction). Thereafter it can be passively stored or remain productively utilized over time in a variety of ways. For instance, upon harvesting, wood (as

7956-556: The natural processes that created fossil fuels . The global potential for carbon sequestration using wood burial is estimated to be 10 ± 5 GtC/yr and largest rates in tropical forests (4.2 GtC/yr), followed by temperate (3.7 GtC/yr) and boreal forests (2.1 GtC/yr). In 2008, Ning Zeng of the University of Maryland estimated 65 GtC lying on the floor of the world's forests as coarse woody material which could be buried and costs for wood burial carbon sequestration run at 50 USD/tC which

8058-468: The northern hemisphere, with most of their growth occurring since the last ice age , but they are also found in tropical regions, such as the Amazon and Congo Basin. Peatlands grow steadily over thousands of years, accumulating dead plant material – and the carbon contained within it – due to waterlogged conditions which greatly slow rates of decay. If peatlands are drained, for farmland or development,

8160-441: The ocean through rivers, but wind-blown debris and dust can also play a role, as these pollutants can settle into waterways and oceans. Pathways of pollution include direct discharge, land runoff, ship pollution , bilge pollution , atmospheric pollution and, potentially, deep sea mining . Marine debris , also known as marine litter, is human-created solid material that has deliberately or accidentally been released in seas or

8262-485: The oceans is discarded and lost nets from the fishing industry. Waterborne plastic poses a serious threat to fish , seabirds , marine reptiles , and marine mammals , as well as to boats and coasts. A growing concern regarding plastic pollution in the marine ecosystem is the use of microplastics. Microplastics are beads of plastic less than 5 millimeters wide, and they are commonly found in hand soaps, face cleansers, and other exfoliators. When these products are used,

8364-471: The other hand is a biological process and could sequester significant amounts of carbon. The potential growth of seaweed for carbon farming would see the harvested seaweed transported to the deep ocean for long-term burial. The IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate recommends "further research attention" on seaweed farming as a mitigation tactic. The term carbon sequestration

8466-584: The plant material stored within them decomposes rapidly, releasing stored carbon. These degraded peatlands account for 5-10% of global carbon emissions from human activities. The loss of one peatland could potentially produce more carbon than 175–500 years of methane emissions . Peatland protection and restoration are therefore important measures to mitigate carbon emissions, and also provides benefits for biodiversity, freshwater provision, and flood risk reduction. Compared to natural vegetation, cropland soils are depleted in soil organic carbon (SOC). When soil

8568-434: The rate of change." Wetland restoration involves restoring a wetland's natural biological, geological, and chemical functions through re-establishment or rehabilitation. It is a good way to reduce climate change. Wetland soil, particularly in coastal wetlands such as mangroves , sea grasses , and salt marshes , is an important carbon reservoir; 20–30% of the world's soil carbon is found in wetlands, while only 5–8% of

8670-416: The sandstone is coarser than the lower part (a coarsening upwards sequence ). Geologists refer to these are parasequences . Each records an episode of retreat of the ocean from the shoreline over a period of 10,000 to 1,000,000 years. These often show laminations reflecting various kinds of tidal cycles. Some of the best-studied shoreline deposits in the world are found along the former western shore of

8772-579: The sea. Some coastal animals are used to humans in developed areas, such as dolphins and seagulls who eat food thrown for them by tourists. Since the coastal areas are all part of the littoral zone , there is a profusion of marine life found just off-coast, including sessile animals such as corals , sponges, starfish, mussels, seaweeds, fishes, and sea anemones . There are many kinds of seabirds on various coasts. These include pelicans and cormorants , who join up with terns and oystercatchers to forage for fish and shellfish. There are sea lions on

8874-401: The seashore (see also estuaries and coastal ecosystems ). While there is general agreement in the scientific community regarding the definition of coast, in the political sphere, the delineation of the extents of a coast differ according to jurisdiction . Government authorities in various countries may define coast differently for economic and social policy reasons. The coastline paradox

8976-427: The second principle of classification, a concordant coastline is a coastline where bands of different rock types run parallel to the shore. These rock types are usually of varying resistance , so the coastline forms distinctive landforms, such as coves. Discordant coastlines feature distinctive landforms because the rocks are eroded by the ocean waves . The less resistant rocks erode faster, creating inlets or bay ;

9078-562: The sequestered carbon being released back into the atmosphere. Carbon sequestration - when acting as a carbon sink - helps to mitigate climate change and thus reduce harmful effects of climate change . It helps to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which is mainly carbon dioxide released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon sequestration, when applied for climate change mitigation, can either build on enhancing naturally occurring carbon sequestration or use technology for carbon sequestration processes. Within

9180-404: The slope than up it. Steep waves that are close together and break with the surf plunging down onto the shore slope expend much of their energy lifting the sediment. The weak swash does not carry it far up the slope, and the strong backwash carries it further down the slope, where it either settles in deeper water or is carried along the shore by a longshore current induced by an angled approach of

9282-414: The soil slows down the decomposition of organic material, leading to the accumulation of carbon-rich sediments, acting as a long-term carbon sink . Also, anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils hinder the complete breakdown of organic matter, promoting the conversion of carbon into more stable forms. As with forests, for the sequestration process to succeed, the wetland must remain undisturbed. If it

9384-419: The soil. This organic matter, derived from decaying plant material and root systems, is rich in carbon compounds. Microorganisms in the soil break down this organic matter, and in the process, some of the carbon becomes further stabilized in the soil as humus - a process known as humification . On a global basis, it is estimated that soil contains about 2,500 gigatons of carbon. This is greater than 3-fold

9486-696: The terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a geographic location or region located on a coastline (e.g., New Zealand's West Coast , or the East , West , and Gulf Coast of the United States .) Coasts with a narrow continental shelf that are close to the open ocean are called pelagic coast , while other coasts are more sheltered coast in a gulf or bay . A shore , on the other hand, may refer to parts of land adjoining any large body of water, including oceans (sea shore) and lakes (lake shore). The Earth has approximately 620,000 kilometres (390,000 mi) of coastline. Coastal habitats, which extend to

9588-493: The threats of coasts has been captured in Sustainable Development Goal 14 "Life Below Water" which sets goals for international policy focused on preserving marine coastal ecosystems and supporting more sustainable economic practices for coastal communities. Likewise, the United Nations has declared 2021–2030 the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration , but restoration of coastal ecosystems has received insufficient attention. Carbon sequestration Carbon sequestration

9690-442: The true area that has a net cooling effect on the climate when accounting for biophysical feedbacks like albedo is 20-80% lower. Planting and protecting these trees would sequester 205 billion tons of carbon if the trees survive future climate stress to reach maturity. To put this number into perspective, this is about 20 years of current global carbon emissions (as of 2019) . This level of sequestration would represent about 25% of

9792-487: The wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed. In these areas, the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and

9894-476: The wave-front to the shore. These waves which erode the beach are called destructive waves. Low waves that are further apart and break by spilling , expend more of their energy in the swash which carries particles up the beach, leaving less energy for the backwash to transport them downslope, with a net constrictive influence on the beach. Riviera is an Italian word for "shoreline", ultimately derived from Latin ripa ("riverbank"). It came to be applied as

9996-407: The waves surge up the river estuaries from the ocean. Geologists classify coasts on the basis of tidal range into macrotidal coasts with a tidal range greater than 4 m (13 ft); mesotidal coasts with a tidal range of 2 to 4 m (6.6 to 13 ft); and microtidal coasts with a tidal range of less than 2 m (7 ft). The distinction between macrotidal and mesotidal coasts

10098-469: The whole ocean system are ultimately connected, although certain regional classifications are useful and relevant. The waters of the continental shelves represent such a region. The term "coastal waters" has been used in a wide variety of different ways in different contexts. In European Union environmental management it extends from the coast to just a few nautical miles while in the United States

10200-458: The world's land is composed of wetlands. Studies have shown that restored wetlands can become productive CO 2 sinks and many are being restored. Aside from climate benefits, wetland restoration and conservation can help preserve biodiversity, improve water quality , and aid with flood control . The plants that makeup wetlands absorb carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from the atmosphere and convert it into organic matter. The waterlogged nature of

10302-482: The world's people live in coastal regions. According to a United Nations atlas, 44% of all people live within 150 km (93 mi) of the sea. Many major cities are on or near good harbors and have port facilities. Some landlocked places have achieved port status by building canals . Nations defend their coasts against military invaders, smugglers and illegal migrants. Fixed coastal defenses have long been erected in many nations, and coastal countries typically have

10404-441: Was expanded upon by Benoit Mandelbrot . Tides often determine the range over which sediment is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deposition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, tidal bores can erode as

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