44-590: The Lanphere Dunes National Natural Landmark a unit of the Humboldt Bay National Wildlife Refuge Complex, is located in Humboldt County , California . The dune complex consists of the wave slope, fore dune, herbaceous and woody swales, coniferous and riparian forest, freshwater swamp , freshwater marsh , brackish marsh , salt marsh, and intertidal mudflats. The site exemplifies dunes succession . The area
88-438: A barrier to migration. As traffic volumes increase, the more mule deer tend to avoid those areas and abandon their typical migration routes. It has also been found that fencing can alter deer behavior, acting as a barrier, and potentially changing mule deer migration patterns. In addition, urban development has replaced mule deer habitat with subdivisions, and human activity has increased. As a result of this, researchers have seen
132-495: A decline in mule deer populations. This is especially prominent in Colorado where the human population has grown by over 2.2 million since 1980. Protecting migration corridors is essential to maintain healthy mule deer populations. One thing everyone can do is help slow the increase in climate change by using greener energy sources and reducing the amount of waste in our households. In addition, managers and researchers can assess
176-861: A deer after it has died naturally. Bears and small carnivores are typically opportunistic feeders and pose little threat to a strong, healthy mule deer. In 99 studies of mule deer diets, some 788 species of plants were eaten by mule deer, and their diets vary greatly depending on the season, geographic region, year, and elevation. The studies gave these data for Rocky Mountain mule deer diets: The diets of mule deer are very similar to those of white-tailed deer in areas where they coexist. Mule deer are intermediate feeders rather than pure browsers or grazers ; they predominantly browse but also eat forb vegetation, small amounts of grass and, where available, tree or shrub fruits such as beans , pods , nuts (including acorns ), and berries . Mule deer readily adapt to agricultural products and landscape plantings. In
220-542: A height of 80–106 cm (31–42 in) at the shoulders and a nose-to-tail length ranging from 1.2 to 2.1 m (3.9 to 6.9 ft). Of this, the tail may comprise 11.6 to 23 cm (4.6 to 9.1 in). Adult bucks normally weigh 55–150 kg (121–331 lb), averaging around 92 kg (203 lb), although trophy specimens may weigh up to 210 kg (460 lb). Does (female deer) are smaller and typically weigh from 43 to 90 kg (95 to 198 lb), with an average of around 68 kg (150 lb). Unlike
264-528: A risk for migrating mule deer by invalidating historic or learned migration paths. Human activities such as natural resource extraction, highways, fencing, and urban development all have an impact on mule deer populations and migrations through habitat degradation and fragmentation. Natural gas extraction has been found to have varying negative effects on mule deer behavior and can even cause them to avoid areas they use to migrate. Highways not only cause injury and death to mule deer, but they can also serve as
308-782: A variety of wild mushrooms , which are most abundant in late summer and fall in the southern Rocky Mountains; mushrooms provide moisture, protein, phosphorus, and potassium. Humans sometimes engage in supplemental feeding efforts in severe winters in an attempt to help mule deer avoid starvation. Wildlife agencies discourage such efforts, which cause harm to mule deer populations by spreading disease (such as tuberculosis and chronic wasting disease ) when deer congregate for feed, disrupting migratory patterns, causing overpopulation of local mule deer populations, and causing habitat destruction from overbrowsing of shrubs and forbs. Supplemental feeding efforts might be appropriate when carefully conducted under limited circumstances, but to be successful,
352-562: Is a 14-acre (57,000 m ) island located 80 miles (130 km) north of Humboldt Bay (less than 1-mile (1.6 km) off the Pacific Coast) near Crescent City . The island serves as the second-largest seabird nesting colony in California. Castle Rock Refuge has the largest breeding population of common murres in California. [REDACTED] This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of
396-444: Is about seven. Mule deer are ruminants , meaning they employ a nutrient acquisition strategy of fermenting plant material before digesting it. Deer consuming high-fiber, low-starch diets require less food than those consuming high-starch, low-fiber diets. Rumination time also increases when deer consume high-fiber, low-starch diets, which allows for increased nutrient acquisition due to greater length of fermentation. Because some of
440-673: Is an administrative entity that also manages the Lanphere Dunes Unit and the Castle Rock National Wildlife Refuge . Lanphere Dunes, located on the northern seaward shore of Humboldt Bay, contains the most pristine remaining dune ecosystem in the Pacific Northwest and supports rare and representative examples of older forested dunes, young active dunes, dune swale wetlands, and coastal salt marsh . Castle Rock National Wildlife Refuge
484-643: Is an invasive species that was found to be omnipresent in the Lanphere Dunes, having taken over many of the areas formally occupied by native grasses. Between 1992 and 1997, European Beachgrass from the dune zone was manually removed by laborers from the California Conservation Corps funded by the Nature Conservancy . After starting the restoration project in 1992, native plant cover in Lanphere Dunes increased by 47% by
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#1732798758074528-477: Is complicated. Some authorities have recognized O. h. crooki as a senior synonym of O. h. eremicus , but the type specimen of the former is a hybrid between the mule deer and white-tailed deer, so the name O. h. crooki is invalid. Additionally, the validity of O. h. inyoensis has been questioned, and the two insular O. h. cerrosensis and O. h. sheldoni may be synonyms of O. h. eremicus or O. h. peninsulae . The 10 valid subspecies, based on
572-626: Is directly involved with basal metabolic rate and thermoregulation. Mule deer migrate from low elevation winter ranges to high elevation summer ranges. Although not all individuals in populations migrate, some will travel long distances between summer and winter ranges. Researchers discovered the longest mule deer migration in Wyoming spanning 150 miles from winter to summer range Multiple US states track mule deer migrations. Mule deer migrate in fall to avoid harsh winter conditions like deep snow that covers up food resources, and in spring follow
616-556: Is found throughout most of North America east of the Rocky Mountains and in the valleys of the Rocky Mountains from Idaho and Wyoming northward, mule deer are only found on the western Great Plains , in the Rocky Mountains, in the southwest United States , and on the west coast of North America. Mule deer have also been introduced to Argentina and Kauai, Hawaii . Mule deer can be divided into two main groups:
660-492: Is located on Humboldt Bay , on the California North Coast near the cities of Eureka and Arcata . The refuge exists primarily to protect and enhance wetland habitats for migratory water birds using the bay area, including tens of thousands of shorebirds , ducks , geese , swans , and the black brant . Humboldt Bay National Wildlife Refuge, along with other public and private lands around Humboldt Bay,
704-544: Is one of the key stopovers for the millions of migratory birds that rely on the Pacific Flyway . More than 200 bird species, including 80 kinds of water birds and four endangered species , regularly feed, rest, or nest on the refuge or other areas around the bay. The bay provides habitat for approximately 100 species of fish, many of which contribute to sport or commercial fisheries, and provides habitat for fish including steelhead , coho , and Chinook salmon . During
748-632: Is regulated by changes in the length of the day. The size of mule deer groups follows a marked seasonal pattern. Groups are smallest during fawning season (June and July in Saskatchewan and Alberta) and largest in early gestation (winter; February and March in Saskatchewan and Alberta). Besides humans, the three leading predators of mule deer are coyotes , wolves , and cougars . Bobcats , Canada lynx , wolverines , American black bears , and grizzly bears may prey upon adult deer but most often attack only fawns or infirm specimens, or they may eat
792-428: Is the case with white-tails. Each spring, a buck's antlers start to regrow almost immediately after the old antlers are shed. Shedding typically takes place in mid-February, with variations occurring by locale. Although capable of running, mule deer are often seen stotting (also called pronking), with all four feet coming down together. The mule deer is the larger of the three Odocoileus species on average, with
836-993: The Sierra Nevada range , mule deer depend on the lichen Bryoria fremontii as a winter food source. The most common plant species consumed by mule deer are the following: Mule deer have also been known to eat ricegrass , gramagrass , and needlegrass , as well as bearberry , bitter cherry , black oak , California buckeye , ceanothus , cedar , cliffrose , cottonwood , creek dogwood , creeping barberry , dogwood , Douglas fir , elderberry , Fendlera species, goldeneye , holly-leaf buckthorn , jack pine , knotweed , Kohleria species, manzanita , mesquite , pine , rabbitbrush , ragweed , redberry , scrub oak , serviceberry (including Pacific serviceberry ), Sierra juniper , silktassel , snowberry , stonecrop , sunflower , tesota , thimbleberry , turbinella oak , velvet elder , western chokecherry , wild cherry , and wild oats . Where available, mule deer also eat
880-496: The United States Fish and Wildlife Service . Odocoileus hemionus 10, but some disputed (see text ) The mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ) is a deer indigenous to western North America ; it is named for its ears, which are large like those of the mule . Two subspecies of mule deer are grouped into the black-tailed deer . Unlike the related white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ), which
924-492: The sea-watch ( Angelica lucida ). Other species of plants include Kinnikinnick ( Arcotstaphylos uva-ursi ) and reindeer lichen ( Cladonia rangiferina ). Many of the lichens and flora that still thrive in the Lanphere Dunes, including reindeer lichens, date back to the Ice Age . Varieties of flora often found in Lanphere Dunes that are typically common are often far away from their natural ranges. Sands that are blown in with
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#1732798758074968-949: The U.S. Department of the Interior and will continue to be managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Bureau of Land Management. Due to its isolation, Lanphere Dunes is home to many uncommon and geographically displaced flora including two federally listed species found in this habitat: Humboldt Bay wallflower ( Erysimum menziesii subsp. menziesii ) and beach layia ( Layia carnosa ). Other rare and endangered plants include Pink sand-verbena ( Abronia umbellata subsp. brevifolia ), Humboldt Bay owl's clover ( Castilleja ambigua subsp. humboldtiensis ), Point Reyes bird's-beak ( Cordylanthus maritimus subsp. palustris ), dark-eyed gilia ( Gilia millefoliata ), American glehnia ( Glehnia littoralis subsp. leiocarpa ), western sand spurrey ( Spergularia canadensis subsp. occidentalis ) and
1012-550: The activity, noise, light at the extraction sites. The increase in urbanization has impacted mule deer migrations and there is evidence to show it also disrupts gene flow among mule deer populations. One clear option is to not build houses in critical mule deer habitat; however, build near mule deer habitat has resulted in some deer becoming accustomed to humans and the resources, such as food and water. Rather than migrate through urban areas some deer tend to stay close to those urban developments, potentially for resources and to avoid
1056-557: The area was protected and turned over to the National Wildlife Refuge System for management. Site management focuses on the prevention and eradication of invasive plants and the restoration of dune and estuarine processes. In January 2021, nine hundred acres of Lanphere Dunes and Ma-le'l Dunes , the first dune habitat restoration project on the West Coast, were designated as National Natural Landmarks by
1100-550: The black-tailed deer. Despite this, the mtDNA of the white-tailed deer and mule deer is similar, but differs from that of the black-tailed deer. This may be the result of introgression , although hybrids between the mule deer and white-tailed deer are rare in the wild (apparently more common locally in West Texas ), and the hybrid survival rate is low even in captivity. Many claims of observations of wild hybrids are not legitimate, as identification based on external features
1144-432: The breeding cycle is important in understanding deer behavior. The rut or mating season usually begins in the fall as does go into estrus for a period of a few days, and males become more aggressive, competing for mates. Does may mate with more than one buck and go back into estrus within a month if they did not become pregnant. The gestation period is about 190–200 days, with fawns born in the spring. The survival rate of
1188-534: The emergence of new growth northwards. There is evidence to suggest that mule deer migrate based on cognitive memory, meaning they use the same path year after year even if the availability of resources has changed. This contradicts the idea that animals will go to the areas with the best available resources, which makes migratory paths crucial for survival. There are many risks that mule deer face during migration including climate change and human disturbance. Climate change impacts on seasonal growth patterns constitute
1232-403: The fawns during labor is about 50%. Fawns stay with their mothers during the summer and are weaned in the fall after about 60–75 days. Mule deer females usually give birth to two fawns, although if it is their first time having a fawn, they often have just one. A buck's antlers fall off during the winter, then grow again in preparation for the next season's rut. The annual cycle of antler growth
1276-450: The feeding must begin early in the severe winter (before poor range conditions and severe weather cause malnourishment or starvation) and must be continued until range conditions can support the herd. Mule deer are variably gregarious, with a large proportion of solitary individuals (35 to 64%) and small groups (groups with ≤5 deer, 50 to 78%). Reported mean group size measurements are three to five and typical group size (i.e., crowding)
1320-509: The island from late January through early April. Castle Rock National Wildlife Refuge also serves as a haul out for resting marine mammals including harbor seal , northern elephant seal , California sea lion , and Steller sea lion . The refuge is the largest part of the Humboldt National Wildlife Refuge Complex, which is headquartered south of Eureka at its Loleta, California site. The "Complex"
1364-418: The mule deer ( sensu stricto ) and the black-tailed deer . The first group includes all subspecies, except O. h. columbianus and O. h. sitkensis , which are in the black-tailed deer group. The two main groups have been treated as separate species, but they hybridize , and virtually all recent authorities treat the mule deer and black-tailed deer as conspecific . Mule deer apparently evolved from
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1408-497: The obstacles in urban areas. Suggested measures by property owners to protect mule deer genetic diversity and migration paths include planting deer-resistant plants, placing scare devices such as noise-makers, and desisting from feeding deer. Wildlife officials in Utah announced that a November–December 2021 field study had detected the first case of SARS-CoV-2 in mule deer. Several deer possessed apparent SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, however
1452-439: The occasional ocean breezes remain trapped in the forests, killing off the trees and leaving behind "skeleton forests," areas where all the husks of former trees are plentiful. American Dunegrass ( Leymus mollis ) used to be plentiful, once found along the west coast as south as Morro Bay in California, this native grass now occurs in just two areas along the California coast, Point Reyes and the Lanphere Dunes. European Beachgrass
1496-436: The rare white-footed vole and Botta's pocket gopher (Homomys bottae laticeps) are recorded. Due to their adaptability, coyote , gray fox , Virginia opossum and raccoon can be found in a wide variety of the refuge habitats. 40°53′56″N 124°8′41″W / 40.89889°N 124.14472°W / 40.89889; -124.14472 Humboldt Bay National Wildlife Refuge Humboldt Bay National Wildlife Refuge
1540-451: The risks listed above and take the proper steps to mitigate any adverse impacts those risk have on mule deer populations. Not only will populations benefit from these efforts but so will many other wildlife species. One way to help protect deer from getting hit on roadways is to install high fence wildlife fencing with escape routes. This helps keep deer off the road, preventing vehicle collisions and allowing animals that are trapped between
1584-542: The road and the fence a way to escape to safety. However, to maintain migration routes that cross busy highways, managers have also implemented natural, vegetated, overpasses and underpasses to allow animals, like mule deer, to migrate and move safely across highways. Approaches to mitigating the impact of drilling and mining operations include regulating the time of year when active drilling and heavy traffic to sites are taking place, and using well-informed planning to protect critical deer habitat and using barriers to mitigate
1628-416: The spread of invasive species. Lanphere Dunes provides shelter and forage for larger animals including black-tailed deer , bobcat , mountain lion , grey fox and porcupine . Smaller mammals that live in Lanphere Dunes include the dusky-footed woodrat , white-footed deer mouse , Pacific jumping mouse , California harvest mouse , Trowbridge shrew , Vagrant shrews , shrew moles , California voles ,
1672-464: The spring, the bay's eelgrass beds are a key staging area for brant goose prior to their return to Arctic nesting grounds; and the refuge grasslands provide important habitat for thousands of Aleutian cackling geese . Like many of the refuges in the system, this one was established to preserve habitats recognized to be instrumental to the perpetual survival of migratory birds and other wildlife. Each spring, over 20,000 Aleutian cackling geese roost on
1716-459: The subspecies of mule deer are migratory, they encounter variable habitats and forage quality throughout the year. Forages consumed in the summer are higher in digestible components (i.e. proteins, starches, sugars, and hemicellulose ) than those consumed in the winter. The average gross energy content of the consumed forage material is 4.5 kcal/g. Due to fluctuations in forage quality and availability, mule deer fat storage varies throughout
1760-471: The third edition of Mammal Species of the World , are: The most noticeable differences between white-tailed and mule deer are ear size, tail color, and antler configuration. In many cases, body size is also a key difference. The mule deer's tail is black-tipped, whereas the white-tailed deer's is not. Mule deer antlers are bifurcated; they "fork" as they grow, rather than branching from a single main beam, as
1804-557: The white-tailed, the mule deer does not generally show marked size variation across its range, although environmental conditions can cause considerable weight fluctuations in any given population. An exception to this is the Sitka deer subspecies ( O. h. sitkensis ). This race is markedly smaller than other mule deer, with an average weight of 54.5 kg (120 lb) and 36 kg (79 lb) in males and females, respectively. In addition to movements related to available shelter and food,
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1848-413: The year 1997 without the assistance of active re-planting. Native species of dunes grass that have experienced a comeback in population count are American dunegrass , silver bursage , beach morning glory ( Convolvulus soldanella ), and dune tansy also referred to as ( Tanacetum douglasii ). Together, all these dune grasses form the fore dune's ecosystem that used to be extensive along the coast before
1892-547: The year, with the most fat stored in October, which is depleted throughout the winter to the lowest levels of fat storage in March. Changes in hormone levels are indications of physiological adjustments to the changes in the habitat. Total body fat is a measure of the individual's energy reserves, while thyroid hormone concentrations are a metric to determine the deer's ability to use the fat reserves. Triiodothyronine (T3) hormone
1936-459: Was historically occupied by Wiyot prior to European settlement when, in the 1930s, William and Hortense Lanphere made it their home. For the next 40 years they maintained the dunes in a relatively pristine state. In 1975 a movement for permanent protection was made by the Lanpheres and faculty from Humboldt State University who used the area for botany classes. Working with The Nature Conservancy
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