93-464: The Lexus TX is a full-size luxury crossover SUV with three-row seating produced by Japanese brand Lexus , a luxury division of Toyota . Produced since September 2023, it is exclusively marketed in North America. The TX is constructed upon the front- and all-wheel drive TNGA-K platform, shared with its Toyota Grand Highlander sibling and the mid-size XU70 Highlander/Kluger . The TX
186-492: A front-engine, rear-wheel drive (FR) layout. The FR layout is more expensive to produce and produces lower fuel economy than a front-wheel drive layout; however, it allows for larger engines (particularly straight-six , V8 , and V12 ) to be used. Some American luxury cars during the 1970s through the 1990s switched to a front-wheel drive layout with transverse engine , due to the Arab Oil Embargo of 1973 and
279-520: A 2-rows option with four seats, which typically have more features than their cheaper counterparts. By the early 2020s, manufacturers have found additional strategies to improve technologies, such as new materials, new systems, and improving exteriors. Examples of luxury MPV models include Mercedes-Benz V-Class , Lexus LM , Buick GL8 , Hongqi HQ9 , Toyota Alphard , Volvo EM90 and the Zeekr 009 . Lithium-ion A lithium-ion or Li-ion battery
372-663: A 2.4-liter, turbocharged four-cylinder engine rated at 275 hp (279 PS; 205 kW), TX 500h F Sport Performance has 366 hp (371 PS; 273 kW), and the TX 550h+ 3.5-litre V6 engine is rated at 406 hp (412 PS; 303 kW). The hybrid model features a 1.4 kWh , 288-volt lithium-ion , paired with dual electric motors producing 75 kW (101 hp) and 63 kW (85 hp). The plug-in hybrid model features an 18.1 kWh , 355.2-volt lithium-ion , paired with dual electric motors producing 75 kW (101 hp) and 133 kW (179 hp). All-electric range for
465-455: A 60:40 split-folding bench or captain's chairs, while the third row has a 50:50 split bench. The outboard second-row seats can be heated, or heated and ventilated, according to the trim level. Each model is sold in three trim levels: Base, Premium, and Luxury. A 14.0-inch multimedia infotainment display is standard on base models, which runs Lexus' newest infotainment interface. Wireless Apple CarPlay and Android Auto are standard, as well as
558-413: A balancing circuit until the battery is balanced. Balancing typically occurs whenever one or more cells reach their top-of-charge voltage before the other(s), as it is generally inaccurate to do so at other stages of the charge cycle. This is most commonly done by passive balancing, which dissipates excess charge as heat via resistors connected momentarily across the cells to be balanced. Active balancing
651-420: A conventional lithium-ion cell is graphite made from carbon . The positive electrode is typically a metal oxide or phosphate. The electrolyte is a lithium salt in an organic solvent . The negative electrode (which is the anode when the cell is discharging) and the positive electrode (which is the cathode when discharging) are prevented from shorting by a separator. The electrodes are connected to
744-468: A dramatic improvement in lithium-ion battery properties after their market introduction in 1991: over the following 30 years, their volumetric energy density increased threefold while their cost dropped tenfold. There are at least 12 different chemistries of Li-ion batteries; see " List of battery types ." The invention and commercialization of Li-ion batteries may have had one of the greatest impacts of all technologies in human history , as recognized by
837-417: A gelled material, requiring fewer binding agents. This in turn shortens the manufacturing cycle. One potential application is in battery-powered airplanes. Another new development of lithium-ion batteries are flow batteries with redox-targeted solids, that use no binders or electron-conducting additives, and allow for completely independent scaling of energy and power. Generally, the negative electrode of
930-400: A higher discharge rate. NMC and its derivatives are widely used in the electrification of transport , one of the main technologies (combined with renewable energy ) for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from vehicles . M. Stanley Whittingham conceived intercalation electrodes in the 1970s and created the first rechargeable lithium-ion battery, based on a titanium disulfide cathode and
1023-404: A liquid solvent (such as propylene carbonate or diethyl carbonate ) is added. The electrolyte salt is almost always lithium hexafluorophosphate ( LiPF 6 ), which combines good ionic conductivity with chemical and electrochemical stability. The hexafluorophosphate anion is essential for passivating the aluminium current collector used for the positive electrode. A titanium tab
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#17327911974931116-506: A lithium-aluminium anode, although it suffered from safety problems and was never commercialized. John Goodenough expanded on this work in 1980 by using lithium cobalt oxide as a cathode. The first prototype of the modern Li-ion battery, which uses a carbonaceous anode rather than lithium metal, was developed by Akira Yoshino in 1985 and commercialized by a Sony and Asahi Kasei team led by Yoshio Nishi in 1991. M. Stanley Whittingham , John Goodenough , and Akira Yoshino were awarded
1209-524: A lithium-ion cell can change dramatically. Current effort has been exploring the use of novel architectures using nanotechnology to improve performance. Areas of interest include nano-scale electrode materials and alternative electrode structures. The reactants in the electrochemical reactions in a lithium-ion cell are the materials of the electrodes, both of which are compounds containing lithium atoms. Although many thousands of different materials have been investigated for use in lithium-ion batteries, only
1302-594: A long-travel coil-spring suspension and an aluminium V8 engine. In the mid-1990s, the SUV market expanded with new entrants. By the mid-1990s, the entry-level Ford Explorer and upscale Jeep Grand Cherokee were the market leaders for SUVs. The fastest-growing sector of this market was for the so-called luxury SUVs, which included the Jeep Grand Cherokee ... the Grand Cherokee's allure: "This vehicle
1395-418: A navigation system integrated into the dashboard and a wireless smartphone charging system. A 12.3-inch digital gauge display can be reconfigured to show information to the driver, as well as an optional head-up display . A 21-speaker Mark Levinson premium stereo is optional. 20-inch wheels are standard on Premium and Luxury grades. 22-inch wheels are available for the TX 350 Luxury grade and come standard on
1488-424: A non-aqueous electrolyte is typically used, and a sealed container rigidly excludes moisture from the battery pack. The non-aqueous electrolyte is typically a mixture of organic carbonates such as ethylene carbonate and propylene carbonate containing complexes of lithium ions. Ethylene carbonate is essential for making solid electrolyte interphase on the carbon anode, but since it is solid at room temperature,
1581-449: A polymer gel as an electrolyte), a lithium cobalt oxide ( LiCoO 2 ) cathode material, and a graphite anode, which together offer high energy density. Lithium iron phosphate ( LiFePO 4 ), lithium manganese oxide ( LiMn 2 O 4 spinel , or Li 2 MnO 3 -based lithium-rich layered materials, LMR-NMC), and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide ( LiNiMnCoO 2 or NMC) may offer longer life and
1674-446: A process called insertion ( intercalation ) or extraction ( deintercalation ), respectively. As the lithium ions "rock" back and forth between the two electrodes, these batteries are also known as "rocking-chair batteries" or "swing batteries" (a term given by some European industries). The following equations exemplify the chemistry (left to right: discharging, right to left: charging). The negative electrode half-reaction for
1767-529: A range of alternative materials, replaced TiS 2 with lithium cobalt oxide ( LiCoO 2 , or LCO), which has a similar layered structure but offers a higher voltage and is much more stable in air. This material would later be used in the first commercial Li-ion battery, although it did not, on its own, resolve the persistent issue of flammability. These early attempts to develop rechargeable Li-ion batteries used lithium metal anodes, which were ultimately abandoned due to safety concerns, as lithium metal
1860-553: A separate marque (e.g. Lexus , launched by Toyota in 1989) or purchased one (e.g. Bentley , by Volkswagen in 1998). Occasionally, a luxury car is initially sold under a mainstream marque and is later rebranded under a specific luxury marque (for example, the Hyundai's Genesis to Genesis G80 as well as the Citroën DS to DS 5 ). For mass-produced luxury cars, sharing of platforms or components with other models
1953-430: A solid organic electrolyte, polyethylene oxide , which was more stable. In 1985, Akira Yoshino at Asahi Kasei Corporation discovered that petroleum coke , a less graphitized form of carbon, can reversibly intercalate Li-ions at a low potential of ~0.5 V relative to Li+ /Li without structural degradation. Its structural stability originates from its amorphous carbon regions, which serving as covalent joints to pin
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#17327911974932046-481: A status symbol for conspicuous consumption . However, since many European luxury car buyers shy away from conspicuous consumption, brands offer buyers the option of removing exterior badges that identify the model name or engine size. The suspension system of most luxury cars is tuned to prioritize ride quality over handling , however, some are marketed as "sports luxury" and have a greater emphasis on handling characteristics. Traditionally, luxury cars have used
2139-450: A subscription and is designed to monitor surrounding traffic in low-speed driving situations on limited access roads, and will allow the vehicle to autonomously move forward and brake to keep safe distance between the TX and the preceding car. The TX replaces the three-row RX L , making it Lexus' only three-row crossover. The TX offers three configurations: TX 350, TX 500h hybrid , and TX 550h+ plug-in hybrid . The TX 350 will be powered by
2232-541: A temperature range of 5 to 45 °C (41 to 113 °F). Charging should be performed within this temperature range. At temperatures from 0 to 5 °C charging is possible, but the charge current should be reduced. During a low-temperature (under 0 °C) charge, the slight temperature rise above ambient due to the internal cell resistance is beneficial. High temperatures during charging may lead to battery degradation and charging at temperatures above 45 °C will degrade battery performance, whereas at lower temperatures
2325-523: A theoretical capacity of 1339 coulombs per gram (372 mAh/g). The positive electrode is generally one of three materials: a layered oxide (such as lithium cobalt oxide ), a polyanion (such as lithium iron phosphate ) or a spinel (such as lithium manganese oxide ). More experimental materials include graphene -containing electrodes, although these remain far from commercially viable due to their high cost. Lithium reacts vigorously with water to form lithium hydroxide (LiOH) and hydrogen gas. Thus,
2418-401: A time when luxury car sales suffered a 1% decline, and non-luxury SUV sales were flat. By 2004, 30% of major luxury brands' U.S. sales were SUVs. Crossover SUVs became increasingly popular in the mid-2000s, and manufacturers also began to produce luxury versions of crossovers. The Lexus RX was the earliest luxury crossover on the market, and it has since been the best-selling luxury vehicle in
2511-515: A very small number are commercially usable. All commercial Li-ion cells use intercalation compounds as active materials. The negative electrode is usually graphite , although silicon is often mixed in to increase the capacity. The electrolyte is usually lithium hexafluorophosphate , dissolved in a mixture of organic carbonates . A number of different materials are used for the positive electrode, such as LiCoO 2 , LiFePO 4 , and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides . During cell discharge
2604-440: Is a CuF 2 /Li battery developed by NASA in 1965. The breakthrough that produced the earliest form of the modern Li-ion battery was made by British chemist M. Stanley Whittingham in 1974, who first used titanium disulfide ( TiS 2 ) as a cathode material, which has a layered structure that can take in lithium ions without significant changes to its crystal structure . Exxon tried to commercialize this battery in
2697-417: Is a bit more than the heat of combustion of gasoline but does not consider the other materials that go into a lithium battery and that make lithium batteries many times heavier per unit of energy. Note that the cell voltages involved in these reactions are larger than the potential at which an aqueous solutions would electrolyze . During discharge, lithium ions ( Li ) carry the current within
2790-400: Is a type of rechargeable battery that uses the reversible intercalation of Li ions into electronically conducting solids to store energy. In comparison with other commercial rechargeable batteries , Li-ion batteries are characterized by higher specific energy , higher energy density , higher energy efficiency , a longer cycle life , and a longer calendar life . Also noteworthy is
2883-515: Is common, as per modern automotive industry practice. A compact executive car or a compact luxury car is a premium car larger than a premium compact and smaller than an executive car . In European classification, compact executive cars are part of the D-segment . In North American terms, close equivalents are "compact premium car", "compact luxury car", "entry-level luxury car" and "near-luxury car". Compact executive cars are usually based on
Lexus TX - Misplaced Pages Continue
2976-413: Is less common, more expensive, but more efficient, returning excess energy to other cells (or the entire pack) via a DC-DC converter or other circuitry. Balancing most often occurs during the constant voltage stage of charging, switching between charge modes until complete. The pack is usually fully charged only when balancing is complete, as even a single cell group lower in charge than the rest will limit
3069-461: Is proof you can have a true off-road vehicle without giving up luxuries and amenities" with the Jeep providing a crucial new intangible factor for buyers—image. The SUV models generated higher profit margins than passenger cars, and car manufacturers began introducing new luxury SUVs during the late 1990s. SUVs such as the 1995 Lexus LX , 1997 Mercedes-Benz M-Class , and 1998 Lincoln Navigator were
3162-462: Is recommended to be initiated when voltage goes below 4.05 V/cell. Failure to follow current and voltage limitations can result in an explosion. Charging temperature limits for Li-ion are stricter than the operating limits. Lithium-ion chemistry performs well at elevated temperatures but prolonged exposure to heat reduces battery life. Li‑ion batteries offer good charging performance at cooler temperatures and may even allow "fast-charging" within
3255-710: Is relative and partially subjective, reflecting both objective qualities of a car, as well as the projected and perceived image of the vehicle marque . Luxury brands rank above premium brands , though there is no clear distinction between the two. Traditionally, most luxury cars were large vehicles , though smaller sports-oriented models were produced. " Compact " luxury vehicles such as hatchbacks and off-road capable sport utility vehicles are more recent expansions of luxury qualities in various cars. Increasing comfort features, materials quality, interior space, innovations, and or performance have consistently been competitive strategies between car makers practically throughout
3348-410: Is ultrasonically welded to the aluminium current collector. Other salts like lithium perchlorate ( LiClO 4 ), lithium tetrafluoroborate ( LiBF 4 ), and lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ( LiC 2 F 6 NO 4 S 2 ) are frequently used in research in tab-less coin cells , but are not usable in larger format cells, often because they are not compatible with
3441-537: Is unstable and prone to dendrite formation, which can cause short-circuiting . The eventual solution was to use an intercalation anode, similar to that used for the cathode, which prevents the formation of lithium metal during battery charging. The first to demonstrate lithium ion reversible intercalation into graphite anodes was Jürgen Otto Besenhard in 1974. Besenhard used organic solvents such as carbonates, however these solvents decomposed rapidly providing short battery cycle life. Later, in 1980, Rachid Yazami used
3534-613: The Rolls-Royce Phantom , Maybach 57 and 62 , Hongqi L5 , Bentley Mulsanne , Cadillac Celestiq , Toyota Century , and Aurus Senat . High-end sports cars which are targeted towards performance rather than luxury are not usually classified as ultra-luxury cars, even when their cost is greater than US$ 100,000 . The history of a brand and the exclusivity of a particular model can result in price premiums compared to luxury cars with similar features from less prestigious manufacturers. Ultra-luxury cars are usually selected as
3627-401: The constant current phase, the charger applies a constant current to the battery at a steadily increasing voltage, until the top-of-charge voltage limit per cell is reached. During the balance phase, the charger/battery reduces the charging current (or cycles the charging on and off to reduce the average current) while the state of charge of individual cells is brought to the same level by
3720-422: The official state car . Grand tourers are essentially high-performance luxury vehicles. These vehicles are generally two-door coupes and are made for long-distance driving, combined with the luxury of an executive car or full-size luxury car . Long before the luxury SUV segment was defined and became popular, the 1966 Jeep Super Wagoneer was marketed at the time as a fully-equipped station wagon. It
3813-531: The 1950s, including the Toyota Crown (1955–present), Prince/Nissan Gloria (1959–2004), Nissan Cedric (1960–2015), Mitsubishi Debonair (1964–1998), Nissan President (1965–2010), Toyota Century (1967–present), Mazda Luce/929 (1969–1991), and Honda Legend (1985–2021). Since the 1980s, overseas sales of Japanese luxury cars have increased, challenging traditional European luxury brands. Several East Asian manufacturers have created sub-brands for
Lexus TX - Misplaced Pages Continue
3906-738: The 1979 fuel crises which eliminated many FR platforms in favor of the more economical front-wheel drive (FF) layout. From the early 2000s, several of these American luxury cars reverted to FR layouts. Since the introduction of the Bentley Continental GT in 2003, additional luxury grand tourers feature all-wheel drive . Prior to World War II , a wide array of European producers made luxury cars, including Rolls-Royce , Bugatti , Delage , Delahaye , Talbot-Lago , Bentley , Alvis , Avions Voisin , Isotta Fraschini , Horch , Simson , Stoewer , Maybach , Mercedes-Benz , Hispano Suiza , Daimler Company , and Spyker . France
3999-427: The 1990s. The personal luxury car emerged into mass popularity and affordability as an America-specific category of popularly-priced cars made from the 1950s by the four domestic manufacturers (GM, Ford, Chrysler, and AMC) that reached peak popularity in the 1970s. The cars were stylized, mass-produced two-door coupés or convertibles , relying on standard components. These distinctively styled cars were targeting
4092-590: The 2010s. For example, Rolls-Royce Cullinan , Bentley Bentayga , Aston Martin DBX , Maserati Levante , Lamborghini Urus , and Ferrari Purosangue . Some brands, such as Lincoln , have even moved to an all SUV and/or crossover lineup. Manufacturers such as Mercedes-Benz , Toyota , Lexus , Buick , Hongqi , Zeekr and Volvo have marketed upscale luxury MPVs as luxury vehicles, mainly marketed for Asian markets. Luxury MPVs generally have 3-rows of six or seven seats; however, range-topping flagship models may also offer
4185-733: The 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for the development of lithium-ion batteries". Jeff Dahn received the ECS Battery Division Technology Award (2011) and the Yeager award from the International Battery Materials Association (2016). In April 2023, CATL announced that it would begin scaled-up production of its semi-solid condensed matter battery that produces a then record 500 Wh/kg . They use electrodes made from
4278-483: The 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry . More specifically, Li-ion batteries enabled portable consumer electronics , laptop computers , cellular phones , and electric cars , or what has been called the e-mobility revolution. It also sees significant use for grid-scale energy storage as well as military and aerospace applications. Lithium-ion cells can be manufactured to optimize energy or power density. Handheld electronics mostly use lithium polymer batteries (with
4371-476: The 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their contributions to the development of lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-ion batteries can be a safety hazard if not properly engineered and manufactured because they have flammable electrolytes that, if damaged or incorrectly charged, can lead to explosions and fires. Much progress has been made in the development and manufacturing of safe lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-ion solid-state batteries are being developed to eliminate
4464-445: The 550h+. The 500h F Sport Performance features exclusive 22-inch wheels. The TX has a boot space of 20.2 cubic feet (570 L) with all seats up. With the third row seat down, space increases to 57.4 cubic feet (1,630 L). With both second and third row seats down, boot space increases to 97 cubic feet (2,700 L). The TX is offered in three interior color options depending on grade: Peppercorn, Birch and Black. The TX features
4557-736: The European Commission. The next category of luxury cars is known in Great Britain as a "luxury saloon" or "luxury limousine," and is known in the United States as a full-size luxury sedan, large luxury sedan, or flagship sedan. It is the equivalent of the European F-segment and the German Oberklasse segment. Many of these luxury saloons are the flagship for the marque and include
4650-541: The Mercedes-Benz brand, later joined by BMW , which acquired Rolls-Royce Motor Cars in 1998, as well as Volkswagen which much later controlled or acquired additional brands such as Audi , Porsche , Bentley , Lamborghini , and Bugatti brands. In the Soviet Union, the manufacturer ZiL (then called Zis) began producing representational limousines in the mid-1930s. In the early 1950s, GAZ joined with
4743-528: The PHEV model is rated at 53.1 km (33.0 mi). Full-size luxury car A luxury car is a car that provides above-average to high-end levels of comfort , features, and equipment. Often, more expensive materials and surface finishes are used, and buyers expect better build quality . The usually higher pricing and more upscale appearance are often associated with the users' higher social status compared to low- and mid-market segment cars. The term
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#17327911974934836-438: The TX's body rigidity and minimize noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH). Welds and adhesives are featured to increase the vehicle’s joint strength and rigidity through the main framework components of the chassis. The TX introduces a front MacPherson strut suspension and a rear multi-link suspension , as well as widened front and rear tracks. The TX is available in six- and seven-seat configurations. The second row has either
4929-576: The US. Some luxury crossovers are built on a platform shared with sedans or hatchbacks. For example, the Infiniti FX is based upon the same platform as the Infiniti G35 sedans and coupes. While early luxury crossovers released in the late 1990s have resembled traditional boxy SUVs, later crossovers, such as the Infiniti FX and BMW X6 , have been designed with a sporting appearance. Despite
5022-434: The aluminium current collector. Copper (with a spot-welded nickel tab) is used as the current collector at the negative electrode. Current collector design and surface treatments may take various forms: foil, mesh, foam (dealloyed), etched (wholly or selectively), and coated (with various materials) to improve electrical characteristics. Depending on materials choices, the voltage , energy density , life, and safety of
5115-416: The area of non-flammable electrolytes as a pathway to increased safety based on the flammability and volatility of the organic solvents used in the typical electrolyte. Strategies include aqueous lithium-ion batteries , ceramic solid electrolytes, polymer electrolytes, ionic liquids, and heavily fluorinated systems. Research on rechargeable Li-ion batteries dates to the 1960s; one of the earliest examples
5208-399: The battery cell from the negative to the positive electrode, through the non- aqueous electrolyte and separator diaphragm. During charging, an external electrical power source applies an over-voltage (a voltage greater than the cell's own voltage) to the cell, forcing electrons to flow from the positive to the negative electrode. The lithium ions also migrate (through the electrolyte) from
5301-407: The brand's most technologically advanced safety system. System include Pre-Collision System with Pedestrian Detection, Dynamic Radar Cruise Control, Lane Tracing Assist, Lane Departure Alert with Steering Assist, Road Sign Assist and Proactive Driving Assist. The Advanced Park package allows for uncomplicated perpendicular and parallel parking/exiting. Additionally, a Traffic Jam Assist is available via
5394-511: The entire battery's usable capacity to that of its own. Balancing can last hours or even days, depending on the magnitude of the imbalance in the battery. During the constant voltage phase, the charger applies a voltage equal to the maximum cell voltage times the number of cells in series to the battery, as the current gradually declines towards 0, until the current is below a set threshold of about 3% of initial constant charge current. Periodic topping charge about once per 500 hours. Top charging
5487-576: The entry-level luxury segment remained strong throughout the GFC, due to prices being lowered to compete with well-equipped non-luxury cars. For example, in Canada, several luxury manufacturers set sales records in August 2009, due mostly to discounted pricing on entry-level luxury vehicles. Some auto manufacturers market their luxury models using the same marque as the rest of their line. Others have created
5580-419: The external circuit toward the cathode where they recombine with the cathode material in a reduction half-reaction. The electrolyte provides a conductive medium for lithium ions but does not partake in the electrochemical reaction. The reactions during discharge lower the chemical potential of the cell, so discharging transfers energy from the cell to wherever the electric current dissipates its energy, mostly in
5673-481: The external circuit. During charging these reactions and transports go in the opposite direction: electrons move from the positive electrode to the negative electrode through the external circuit. To charge the cell the external circuit has to provide electrical energy. This energy is then stored as chemical energy in the cell (with some loss, e. g., due to coulombic efficiency lower than 1). Both electrodes allow lithium ions to move in and out of their structures with
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#17327911974935766-421: The first SUVs produced by these luxury car brands. Some of these early luxury SUV models used unibody construction, becoming part of the trend moving away from the body-on-frame construction traditionally used by off-road vehicles. During the mid-2000s, SUVs from luxury car brands grew by almost 40% in the United States to more than 430,000 vehicles (excluding SUV-only brands like Hummer and Land Rover ), at
5859-864: The flammable electrolyte. Improperly recycled batteries can create toxic waste, especially from toxic metals, and are at risk of fire. Moreover, both lithium and other key strategic minerals used in batteries have significant issues at extraction, with lithium being water intensive in often arid regions and other minerals used in some Li-ion chemistries potentially being conflict minerals such as cobalt . Both environmental issues have encouraged some researchers to improve mineral efficiency and find alternatives such as Lithium iron phosphate lithium-ion chemistries or non-lithium-based battery chemistries like iron-air batteries . Research areas for lithium-ion batteries include extending lifetime, increasing energy density, improving safety, reducing cost, and increasing charging speed, among others. Research has been under way in
5952-470: The graphite is The positive electrode half-reaction in the lithium-doped cobalt oxide substrate is The full reaction being The overall reaction has its limits. Overdischarging supersaturates lithium cobalt oxide , leading to the production of lithium oxide , possibly by the following irreversible reaction: Overcharging up to 5.2 volts leads to the synthesis of cobalt (IV) oxide, as evidenced by x-ray diffraction : The transition metal in
6045-505: The history of the automobile. Several car classification schemes include a luxury category, such as: Luxury cars have traditionally emphasized higher levels of comfort and safety. Manufacturers often introduce new safety technologies and comfort amenities on luxury models before they are available on more affordable models. Some brands, like Audi and BMW have expanded their marketing by "introducing lesser priced and strip-down economy versions of their products." Luxury vehicles can be
6138-526: The increased popularity of crossover models, traditional luxury SUVs remain in production. Examples include the Lexus LX , Infiniti QX80 , and Lincoln Navigator . Research data from the mid-2000s suggested that luxury SUV buyers did not consider traditional luxury cars (e.g. sedans and coupes), therefore the SUV is becoming the key to bringing new customers into luxury dealerships. Luxury car companies have increasingly introduced SUV or crossover models in
6231-443: The internal resistance of the battery may increase, resulting in slower charging and thus longer charging times. Batteries gradually self-discharge even if not connected and delivering current. Li-ion rechargeable batteries have a self-discharge rate typically stated by manufacturers to be 1.5–2% per month. The rate increases with temperature and state of charge. A 2004 study found that for most cycling conditions self-discharge
6324-482: The lack of a historical legacy has hindered these efforts. In 2014, Citroën introduced DS Automobiles sub-brand to market luxury cars. Pre World War II intermediate car manufacturers like Renault , Fiat , Opel , Lancia , Škoda , Riley , Praga , Peugeot , Hillman and Tatra made luxury cars but were forced to make economy cars and superminis post World War II . Following World War II, Germany rose to become an export powerhouse, building on success with
6417-564: The late 1970s, but found the synthesis expensive and complex, as TiS 2 is sensitive to moisture and releases toxic H 2 S gas on contact with water. More prohibitively, the batteries were also prone to spontaneously catch fire due to the presence of metallic lithium in the cells. For this, and other reasons, Exxon discontinued the development of Whittingham's lithium-titanium disulfide battery. In 1980, working in separate groups Ned A. Godshall et al., and, shortly thereafter, Koichi Mizushima and John B. Goodenough , after testing
6510-435: The layers together. Although it has a lower capacity compared to graphite (~Li0.5C6, 186 mAh g–1), it became the first commercial intercalation anode for Li-ion batteries owing to its cycling stability. In 1987, Yoshino patented what would become the first commercial lithium-ion battery using this anode. He used Goodenough's previously reported LiCoO 2 as the cathode and a carbonate ester -based electrolyte. The battery
6603-551: The market. In the 2000s, both Ford and General Motors produced luxury pickups: 2002-2013 Cadillac Escalade EXT , 2002-2003 Lincoln Blackwood , and 2006-2014 Lincoln Mark LT . In the late 2000s, the Cadillac CTS and Cadillac DTS led to a resurgence in the brand's luxury sedans. The equivalent sedan from the Ford group, the 2008 Lincoln MKS , was also regarded as a significant improvement over previous models. In 2010, BMW
6696-642: The marketing of luxury cars. The first of these was the 1986 launch of Acura (a Honda sub-brand), followed by Lexus (Toyota) in 1989, Infiniti (Nissan) in 1989, and Genesis (Hyundai) in 2015. The time of the 2007–2008 financial crisis and the Great Recession was the first time since the Great Depression that the luxury car market suffered considerably, something not seen in previous economic downturns. Many such customers saw their net worth decline during this time. For example, some of
6789-474: The needs of individual customers, not an entire family. The longest running model lines were the 1958-1997 Ford Thunderbird , 1956-1998 Lincoln Mark Series , and the 1967-2002 Cadillac Eldorado . In 1990, American luxury brands dominated, with Cadillac selling over a quarter-million cars, and Lincoln had its best year ever at 231,660 units. However, the market was changing with an ever greater acceptance of smaller, more efficient imported luxury brands while at
6882-428: The negative electrode is the anode and the positive electrode the cathode : electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through the external circuit. An oxidation half-reaction at the anode produces positively charged lithium ions and negatively charged electrons. The oxidation half-reaction may also produce uncharged material that remains at the anode. Lithium ions move through the electrolyte; electrons move through
6975-584: The newest automotive technology. Several models are available in long-wheelbase versions, which provide additional rear legroom and may have a higher level of standard features. Examples of luxury saloons / full-size luxury sedans include the BMW 7 Series , Jaguar XJ , Cadillac CT6 , Genesis G90 , Audi A8 , Mercedes-Benz S-Class , Lexus LS , Hongqi H9 , Porsche Panamera and Maserati Quattroporte . Luxury cars costing over US$ 100,000 (as of 2007) can be considered as "ultra-luxury cars". Examples include
7068-427: The platform of a mid-size car (also known as large family car or D-segment ), while some models may be based on a compact car (also known as small family car or C-segment ). Executive car is a British term for an automobile larger than a large family car . In official use, the term is adopted by Euro NCAP , a European organization founded to test for car safety. It is a passenger car classification defined by
7161-410: The positive electrode, cobalt ( Co ), is reduced from Co to Co during discharge, and oxidized from Co to Co during charge. The cell's energy is equal to the voltage times the charge. Each gram of lithium represents Faraday's constant /6.941, or 13,901 coulombs. At 3 V, this gives 41.7 kJ per gram of lithium, or 11.6 kWh per kilogram of lithium. This
7254-492: The positive to the negative electrode where they become embedded in the porous electrode material in a process known as intercalation . Energy losses arising from electrical contact resistance at interfaces between electrode layers and at contacts with current collectors can be as high as 20% of the entire energy flow of batteries under typical operating conditions. The charging procedures for single Li-ion cells, and complete Li-ion batteries, are slightly different: During
7347-565: The postwar era. From 1946 until the late 1990s, Cadillac was the top-selling brand of luxury cars in the U.S., while Lincoln was second. The most successful and long-running model names during this era were the Cadillac DeVille , Lincoln Continental , and the Chrysler Imperial . The Lincoln Mark Series and Cadillac Eldorado were positioned in the personal luxury category, and competition between them continued into
7440-432: The powered circuit through two pieces of metal called current collectors. The negative and positive electrodes swap their electrochemical roles ( anode and cathode ) when the cell is charged. Despite this, in discussions of battery design the negative electrode of a rechargeable cell is often just called "the anode" and the positive electrode "the cathode". In its fully lithiated state of LiC 6 , graphite correlates to
7533-457: The presence of ethylene carbonate solvent (which is solid at room temperature and is mixed with other solvents to make a liquid). This represented the final innovation of the era that created the basic design of the modern lithium-ion battery. In 2010, global lithium-ion battery production capacity was 20 gigawatt-hours. By 2016, it was 28 GWh, with 16.4 GWh in China. Global production capacity
7626-497: The same time, the domestic manufacturers were downsizing their models with product decisions that backfired on quality and brand respect. Since the late 1990s, Japanese and German brands have sold the most luxury-type cars in the United States. However, the Cadillac Escalade has led the luxury SUV segment sales in the United States since its introduction in 1998, with the highest sales for 15 out of its first 20 years on
7719-967: The somewhat smaller "Chaika" model range. In 2018, Aurus Motors was established to produce luxury vehicles for the Russian market. The luxury car phenomenon began at the start of the automobile industry when the wealthy frequently invested in manufacturing such models to gain social prestige. Emphasis was also placed on custom-built coachwork. The 1920s and 1930s were the apogee of production of these very large luxury automobiles from many manufacturers. The significant North American manufacturers from 1910 until 1940 included Auburn , Buick , Cadillac , Chrysler , Continental , Cord , Daniels , DeSoto , Duesenberg , Franklin , Imperial , LaFayette , LaSalle , Lincoln , Marmon , Packard , Peerless , Pierce Arrow , Ruxton , Stearns-Knight , and Stutz . The Great Depression put many luxury car manufacturers out of business; others would hold on before going defunct during
7812-537: The steepest drop-offs came at the high end, including the BMW 7 Series and Rolls-Royce Phantom , and in 2010 Mercedes-Benz dropped the price of the W212 E-Class . The unusually sharp decline in luxury car sales has led observers to believe that there is a fundamental shift and reshaping of the luxury automotive market, with one industry official suggesting that the marques no longer command the premiums that they used to and another saying that conspicuous consumption
7905-419: Was 767 GWh in 2020, with China accounting for 75%. Production in 2021 is estimated by various sources to be between 200 and 600 GWh, and predictions for 2023 range from 400 to 1,100 GWh. In 2012, John B. Goodenough , Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino received the 2012 IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies for developing the lithium-ion battery; Goodenough, Whittingham, and Yoshino were awarded
7998-563: Was a leading producer of powerful luxury automobiles before World War II. After World War II, the French government used puissance fiscale tax regulations to encourage manufacturers to build cars with small engines, and French motorists to buy them. The Maserati-powered Citroën SM and the Citroën C6 were arguably the last domestic French luxury cars. In the 2010s, some French manufacturers have attempted to develop luxury cars, however
8091-630: Was assembled in the discharged state, which made it safer and cheaper to manufacture. In 1991, using Yoshino's design, Sony began producing and selling the world's first rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. The following year, a joint venture between Toshiba and Asashi Kasei Co. also released a lithium-ion battery. Significant improvements in energy density were achieved in the 1990s by replacing Yoshino's soft carbon anode first with hard carbon and later with graphite. In 1990, Jeff Dahn and two colleagues at Dalhousie University (Canada) reported reversible intercalation of lithium ions into graphite in
8184-454: Was no longer attractive in poor economic conditions. Additionally, mainstream brands have been able to offer amenities and devices such as leather, wood, and anti-lock brakes, previously found only on luxury cars, as the costs decline. However, luxury vehicle sales remained relatively high compared to their non-luxury counterparts. This was aided by growing interest in luxury vehicles from emerging markets such as China and Russia. Sales in
8277-484: Was primarily time-dependent; however, after several months of stand on open circuit or float charge, state-of-charge dependent losses became significant. The self-discharge rate did not increase monotonically with state-of-charge, but dropped somewhat at intermediate states of charge. Self-discharge rates may increase as batteries age. In 1999, self-discharge per month was measured at 8% at 21 °C, 15% at 40 °C, 31% at 60 °C. By 2007, monthly self-discharge rate
8370-587: Was revealed simultaneously with the J250 GX on June 8, 2023. Replacing the RX L , it takes the position of being the brand's only three-row crossover SUV . The TX was revealed on June 8, 2023 as part of Toyota's GA-K platform dedicated to mid-size and full-size vehicles with either a front- or all-wheel drive layout configuration. The new platform offers a low center of gravity and optimal weight distribution. To improve performance, enhancements were made to strengthen
8463-532: Was the best-selling luxury vehicle manufacturer by sales, with Audi and Mercedes-Benz the second and third highest selling luxury brands. Chinese manufacturer Hongqi was launched in 1958, making it the oldest Chinese luxury car marque. Later newcomers joined taking advantage of the rise of electric powertrains, with NEV brands such as Nio in 2014, Lynk & Co in 2016, HiPhi in 2019, and Zeekr in 2021 producing luxury electric and hybrid vehicles. Japanese manufacturers have been producing luxury cars since
8556-420: Was the first off-road SUV to offer a V8 engine and automatic transmission along with luxury car trim and equipment. Standard features included bucket seating , a center console, air conditioning, a seven-position tilt steering wheel, a vinyl roof , and gold-colored trim panels on the body sides and tailgate. By the late 1970s, optional equipment included an electric sunroof. The 1978 Jeep Wagoneer Limited
8649-488: Was the spiritual successor to the Super Wagoneer and was the first four-wheel drive car to use leather upholstery. The Range Rover was released in 1970 as a two-door vehicle for off-road durability with few "creature comforts." A four-door version was added in 1981, and the model was pushed upmarket in 1983 by introducing an automatic transmission (Chrysler's A727 TorqueFlite ) as an option. The Range Rover had
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