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82-402: Olive oil , vegetables and wine grape (including rare Tibouren variety used for rose wine ) are produced in the local farms. Le Pradet, is twinned with Gelnica , Slovakia . This Var geographical article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Olive oil Olive oil is a liquid fat obtained by pressing whole olives , the fruit of Olea europaea ,

164-468: A fuel in oil lamps , soap-making , and skincare application. The Spartans and other Greeks used oil to rub themselves while exercising in the gymnasia . From its beginnings early in the 7th century BC, the cosmetic use of olive oil quickly spread to all of the Hellenic city-states, together with athletes training in the nude, and lasted close to a thousand years despite its great expense. Olive oil

246-438: A characteristic red fabric. It was very heavy, although also strong. Around the middle of the 1st century BC the so-called Dressel 2-4 starts to become widely used. This type of amphora presented some advantages in being lighter and with thinner walls. It has been calculated that while a ship could accommodate approximately 4500 Dressel 1, it was possible to fit 6000 Dressel 2–4 in the same space. Dressel 2-4 were often produced in

328-402: A drought during the flowering phase, for example, can result in a lower quality (virgin) oil. Olive trees produce well every couple of years, so greater harvests occur in alternate years (the year in-between is when the tree yields less). However the quality is still dependent on the weather. In the ancient Levant , three methods were used to produce different grades of olive oil. The finest oil

410-512: A fancy shape for high-quality decorative ceramics, and continued to be produced there long after they had ceased to be used further west. Besides coarse amphorae used for storage and transport, the vast majority, high-quality painted amphorae were produced in Ancient Greece in significant numbers for a variety of social and ceremonial purposes. Their design differs vastly from the more functional versions; they are typified by wide mouth and

492-697: A general analysis of the Western Mediterranean types see Panella, and Peacock and Williams. Ceramics of shapes and uses falling within the range of amphorae, with or without handles, are of prehistoric heritage across Eurasia, from the Caucasus to China. Amphorae dated to approximately 4800 BC have been found in Banpo , a Neolithic site of the Yangshao culture in China . Amphorae first appeared on

574-549: A high smoke point, and consequently is widely used in restaurants as well as home cooking in some countries. The United States is not a member of the IOC and does not implement its grades, but on October 25, 2010, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) established Standards for Grades of Olive Oil and Olive-Pomace Oil which closely parallel the IOC standards: These grades are voluntary. Certification

656-417: A neck amphora, the handles are attached to the neck, which is separated from the belly by an angular carination. There are two main types of neck amphorae: There are also some rarer special types of neck amphora, distinguished by specific features, for example: In contrast to the neck amphora, a belly amphora does not have a distinguished neck; instead, the belly reaches the mouth in a continuous curve. After

738-451: A person holding it by the bottom and a handle. Some variants exist. The handles might not be present. The size may require two or three handlers to lift. For the most part, however, an amphora was tableware, or sat close to the table, was intended to be seen, and was finely decorated as such by master painters. Stoppers of perishable materials, which have rarely survived, were used to seal the contents. Two principal types of amphorae existed:

820-479: A ring base, with a glazed surface and decorated with figures or geometric shapes. They normally have a firm base on which they can stand. Panathenaic amphorae were used as prizes in the Panathenaic Festivals held between the 6th century BC to the 2nd century BC, filled with olive oil from a sacred grove. Surviving examples bear the inscription "I am one of the prizes from Athens", and usually depict

902-428: A small addition of virgin for taste. Olive pomace oil is refined pomace olive oil, often blended with some virgin oil. It is fit for consumption, but may not be described simply as olive oil . It has a more neutral flavor than pure or virgin olive oil, making it less desirable to users concerned with flavor; however, it has the same fat composition as regular olive oil, giving it the same health benefits. It also has

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984-586: A tomb on the island of Naxos in the Aegean Sea . Sinuhe , the Egyptian exile who lived in northern Canaan c.1960 BC, wrote of abundant olive trees. The Minoans used olive oil in religious ceremonies. The oil became a principal product of the Minoan civilization , where it is thought to have represented wealth. Olive oil was also a major export of Mycenaean Greece (c. 1450–1150 BC). Scholars believe

1066-605: A traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin , and extracting the oil. It is commonly used in cooking for frying foods, as a condiment, or as a salad dressing . It can also be found in some cosmetics , pharmaceuticals , soaps , and fuels for traditional oil lamps . It also has additional uses in some religions. The olive is one of three core food plants in Mediterranean cuisine , together with wheat and grapes. Olive trees have been cultivated around

1148-425: A votive glass filled with olive oil, floating on a half-inch of water. The glass has a metal holder that hangs from a bracket on the wall or sits on a table. A cork float with a lit wick floats on the oil. To douse the flame, the float is carefully pressed down into the oil. Makeshift oil lamps can easily be made by soaking a ball of cotton in olive oil and forming it into a peak. The peak is lit and then burns until all

1230-546: Is consecrated by bishops as sacred chrism , which is used to confer the sacrament of confirmation (as a symbol of the strengthening of the Holy Spirit), in the rites of baptism and the ordination of priests and bishops, in the consecration of altars and churches , and, traditionally, in the anointing of monarchs at their coronation . Eastern Orthodox Christians still use oil lamps in their churches, home prayer corners, and cemeteries. A vigil lamp consists of

1312-423: Is an intergovernmental organisation of states that produce olives or products derived from olives, such as olive oil. The IOC officially governs 95% of international production and holds great influence over the rest. The EU regulates the use of different protected designation of origin labels for olive oils. The United States is not a member of the IOC and is not subject to its authority, but on October 25, 2010,

1394-567: Is available, for a fee, from the USDA. Amphora An amphora ( / ˈ æ m f ər ə / ; Ancient Greek : ἀμφορεύς , romanized :  amphoreús ; English pl.   amphorae or amphoras ) is a type of container with a pointed bottom and characteristic shape and size which fit tightly (and therefore safely) against each other in storage rooms and packages, tied together with rope and delivered by land or sea. The size and shape have been determined from at least as early as

1476-410: Is based primarily on the study of modern amphora production in some areas of the eastern Mediterranean. Amphorae often were marked with a variety of stamps, sgraffito , and inscriptions. They provided information on the production, content, and subsequent marketing. A stamp usually was applied to the amphora at a partially dry stage. It indicates the name of the figlina (workshop) and/or the name of

1558-524: Is called "virgin oil" in English. The remaining semi-solid waste, called pomace , retains a small quantity (about 5–10%) of oil that cannot be extracted by further pressing, but only with chemical solvents. This is done in specialized chemical plants, not in the oil mills. The resulting oil is named pomace oil . Handling of olive waste is an environmental challenge because the wastewater , which amounts to millions of tons (billions of liters) annually in

1640-420: Is not chemical acidity in the sense of pH , but the percent (measured by weight) of free oleic acid . Measured by quantitative analysis , acidity is a measure of the hydrolysis of the oil's triglycerides: as the oil degrades, more fatty acids are freed from the glycerides , increasing the level of free acidity and thereby increasing hydrolytic rancidity . Another measure of the oil's chemical degradation

1722-492: Is required to have no more than 0.8% free acidity , and is considered to have favorable flavor characteristics. Olive oil has long been a common ingredient in Mediterranean cuisine , including ancient Greek and Roman cuisine . Wild olives, which originated in Asia Minor , were collected by Neolithic people as early as the 8th millennium BC. Besides food, olive oil has been used for religious rituals , medicines , as

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1804-447: Is taken to make sure the olives are perfectly ripe. The process is generally as follows: The oil produced by only physical (mechanical) means as described above is called virgin oil. Extra virgin olive oil is virgin olive oil that satisfies specific high chemical and organoleptic criteria (low free acidity, no or very little organoleptic defects). A higher grade extra virgin olive oil is mostly dependent on favourable weather conditions;

1886-561: Is the peroxide value , which measures the degree to which the oil is oxidized by free radicals , leading to oxidative rancidity. Phenolic acids present in olive oil also add acidic sensory properties to aroma and flavor. The grades of oil extracted from the olive fruit can be classified as: In countries that adhere to the standards of the International Olive Council , as well as in Australia, and under

1968-436: Is then malaxed (slowly churned or mixed) to allow the microscopic oil droplets to agglomerate. The oil is then separated from the watery matter and fruit pulp with the use of a press (traditional method) or centrifugation (modern method). After extraction the remnant solid substance, called pomace , still contains a small quantity of oil. One parameter used to characterise an oil is its acidity . In this context, "acidity"

2050-554: Is unknown. Archaeological evidence in Galilee shows that by 6000 BC olives were being turned into olive oil and in 4500 BC at a now-submerged prehistoric settlement south of Haifa . Olive trees and oil production in the Eastern Mediterranean can be traced to archives of the ancient city-state Ebla (2600–2240 BC), which were located on the outskirts of Aleppo . Here some dozen documents dated 2400 BC describe

2132-518: Is virgin oil that has been refined using charcoal and other chemical and physical filters, methods which do not alter the glyceridic structure. It has a free acidity, expressed as oleic acid, of not more than 0.3 grams per 100 grams (0.3%) and its other characteristics correspond to those fixed for this category in this standard. It is obtained by refining virgin oils to eliminate high acidity or organoleptic defects. Oils labeled as pure olive oil or olive oil are primarily refined olive oil, with

2214-682: The European Union , has low biodegradability , is toxic to plants, and cannot be processed through conventional water treatment systems. Traditionally, olive pomace would be used as compost or developed as a possible biofuel , although these uses introduce concern due to chemicals present in the pomace. A process called "valorization" of olive pomace is under research and development, consisting of additional processing to obtain value-added byproducts , such as animal feed , food additives for human products, and phenolic and fatty acid extracts for potential human use. On average, during

2296-734: The Levant and later to North Africa , though some scholars argue for an Egyptian origin. The olive tree reached Greece, Carthage and Libya sometime in the 28th century BC , having been spread westward by the Phoenicians . Until around 1500 BC, eastern coastal areas of the Mediterranean were most heavily cultivated. Evidence also suggests that olives were being grown in Crete as long ago as 2500 BC. The earliest surviving olive oil amphorae date to 3500 BC ( Early Minoan times), though

2378-529: The Linear B Bronze Age records of Knossos , 𐀀𐀡𐀩𐀸 , a-po-re-we , at Mycenae, and the fragmentary ]-re-we at Pylos, designated by Ideogram 209 𐃨 , Bennett's AMPHORA, which has a number of scribal variants. The two spellings are transcriptions of amphiphorēwes (plural) and amphorēwe (dual) in Mycenaean Greek from which it may be seen that the short form prevailed on the mainland. Homer uses

2460-596: The Neolithic Period. Amphorae were used in vast numbers for the transport and storage of various products, both liquid and dry, but mostly for wine. They are most often ceramic , but examples in metals and other materials have been found. Versions of the amphorae were one of many shapes used in Ancient Greek vase painting . The amphora complements a vase, the pithos , which makes available capacities between one-half and two and one-half tons. In contrast,

2542-684: The Phoenician coast at approximately 3500 BC. In the Bronze and Iron Ages amphorae spread around the ancient Mediterranean world, being used by the ancient Greeks and Romans as the principal means for transporting and storing grapes , olive oil , wine , oil , olives , grain , fish , and other commodities . They were produced on an industrial scale until approximately the 7th century AD. Wooden and skin containers seem to have supplanted amphorae thereafter. They influenced Chinese ceramics and other East Asian ceramic cultures, especially as

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2624-423: The U.S. Department of Agriculture adopted new voluntary olive oil grading standards that closely parallel those of the IOC, with some adjustments for the characteristics of olives grown in the U.S. U.S. Customs regulations on "country of origin" state that if a non-origin nation is shown on the label, then the real origin must be shown on the same side of the label in letters of comparable size, so as not to mislead

2706-506: The grape , used as a dessert fruit and for wine. Extra virgin olive oil is mostly used raw as a condiment and as an ingredient in salad dressings . If uncompromised by heat, the flavor is stronger. It also can be used for sautéing . When extra virgin olive oil is heated above 210–216 °C (410–421 °F), depending on its free fatty acid content, the unrefined particles within the oil are burned. This leads to deteriorated taste. Refined olive oils are suited for deep frying because of

2788-475: The neck amphora , in which the neck and body meet at a sharp angle; and the one-piece amphora , in which the neck and body form a continuous curve upwards. Neck amphorae were commonly used in the early history of ancient Greece, but were gradually replaced by the one-piece type from around the 7th century BC onward. Most were produced with a pointed base to allow upright storage by embedding in soft ground, such as sand. The base facilitated transport by ship, where

2870-592: The 2nd and the 1st century BC due to the distribution of land to military veterans and the founding of new colonies. Spanish amphorae were widespread in the Mediterranean area during early imperial times. The most common types were all produced in Baetica and among these there were the Dressel 20, a typical olive oil container, the Dressel 7–13, for garum (fish sauce), and the Haltern 70, for defrutum (fruit sauce). In

2952-556: The Eastern Mediterranean region, and some dating to the Roman period are still in use today. Productivity was greatly improved by Joseph Graham's development of the hydraulic pressing system in 1795. The olive tree has historically been a symbol of peace between nations. It has played a religious and social role in Greek mythology , especially concerning the city of Athens , named after the goddess Athena because her gift of an olive tree

3034-667: The Exodus of the Tribes of Israel from Egypt , and later in the permanent Temple in Jerusalem . It was obtained by using only the first drop from a squeezed olive and was consecrated for use only in the Temple by the priests and stored in special containers. In modern times, although candles can be used to light the menorah at Hanukkah , oil containers are preferred, to imitate the original menorah. In Judaism of Ancient Israel, olive oil

3116-526: The Greek form into a standard -a declension noun, amphora , pl. amphorae . Undoubtedly, the word and the vase were introduced to Italy through the Greek settlements there, which traded extensively in Greek pottery. It is remarkable that even though the Etruscans imported, manufactured, and exported amphorae extensively in their wine industry, and other Greek vase names were Etruscanized, no Etruscan form of

3198-576: The Maña C1 and C2, later renamed Van der Werff 1, 2, and 3. In the Aegean area the types from the island of Rhodes were quite popular starting from the 3rd century BC due to local wine production which flourished over a long period. These types developed into the Camulodunum 184, an amphora used for the transportation of Rhodian wine all over the empire. Imitations of the Dressel 2-4 were produced on

3280-522: The Mediterranean since the 8th millennium BC. Spain is the world's largest producer, manufacturing almost half of the world's olive oil. Other large producers are Italy, Greece, Portugal, Tunisia, Turkey and Morocco. The composition of olive oil varies with the cultivar , altitude, time of harvest, and extraction process. It consists mainly of oleic acid (up to 83%), with smaller amounts of other fatty acids including linoleic acid (up to 21%) and palmitic acid (up to 20%). Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO)

3362-585: The Mediterranean, olive farming was introduced to places like Spain and continued to spread throughout the Roman Empire . Olive trees were introduced to the Americas in the 16th century, when cultivation began in areas with a climate similar to the Mediterranean, such as Chile, Argentina, and California . Recent genetic studies suggest that species used by modern cultivators descend from multiple wild populations, but detailed history of domestication

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3444-723: The Tarraconensis region the Pascual 1 was the most common type, a wine amphora shaped on the Dressel 1, and imitations of Dressel 2–4. North-African production was based on an ancient tradition which may be traced back to the Phoenician colony of Carthage . Phoenician amphorae had characteristic small handles attached directly onto the upper body. This feature becomes the distinctive mark of late-Republican/early imperial productions, which are then called neo-Phoenician. The types produced in Tripolitania and Northern Tunisia are

3526-505: The age of a shipwreck and the geographic origin of the cargo. They are occasionally so well preserved that the original content is still present, providing information on foodstuffs and mercantile systems. Amphorae were too cheap and plentiful to return to their origin-point and so, when empty, they were broken up at their destination. At a breakage site in Rome, Testaccio , close to the Tiber ,

3608-415: The amphora holds under a half-ton, typically less than 50 kilograms (110 lb). The bodies of the two types have similar shapes. Where the pithos may have multiple small loops or lugs for fastening a rope harness, the amphora has two expansive handles joining the shoulder of the body and a long neck. The necks of pithoi are wide for scooping or bucket access. The necks of amphorae are narrow for pouring by

3690-536: The amphorae were packed upright or on their sides in as many as five staggered layers. If upright, the bases probably were held by some sort of rack, and ropes passed through their handles to prevent shifting or toppling during rough seas. Heather and reeds might be used as packing around the vases. Racks could be used in kitchens and shops. The base also concentrated deposits from liquids with suspended solid particles, such as olive oil and wines. Amphorae are of great use to maritime archaeologists , as they often indicate

3772-501: The association of Città dell'Olio. Italy imports about 65% of Spanish olive oil exports. Greece has by far the largest per capita consumption of olive oil worldwide, around 24 liters per year. Consumption in Spain is 15 liters; Italy 13 liters; and Israel, around 3 liters. Canada consumes 1.5 liters and the US 1 liter. The International Olive Council (IOC)

3854-457: The black-figure technique for centuries after the introduction of red-figure vase painting . Some examples bear the inscription "ΤΩΝ ΑΘΗΝΗΘΕΝ ΑΘΛΩΝ" meaning "[I am one] of the prizes from [the goddess] Athena". They contained the prize of oil from the sacred olive tree of the goddess Athena for the winners of the athletic contests held to honour the goddess, and were evidently kept thereafter, and perhaps used to store wine, before being buried with

3936-477: The ceramic ateliers in Marseille during late Augustan times. The type Oberaden 74 was produced to such an extent that it influenced the production of some Italic types. Spanish amphorae became particularly popular thanks to a flourishing production phase in late Republican times. The Hispania Baetica and Hispania Tarraconensis regions (south-western and eastern Spain) were the main production areas between

4018-463: The consumer. Yet most major U.S. brands continue to put "imported from Italy" on the front label in large letters and other origins on the back in very small print. "In fact, olive oil labeled 'Italian' often comes from Turkey, Tunisia, Morocco, Spain, and Greece." This makes it unclear what percentage of the olive oil is really of Italian origin. All production begins by transforming the olive fruit into olive paste by crushing or pressing. This paste

4100-622: The entire Mediterranean basin during evolution of the Roman Republic and Empire . According to the historian Pliny the Elder , Italy had "excellent olive oil at reasonable prices" by the 1st century AD—"the best in the Mediterranean". As olive production expanded in the 5th century AD the Romans began to employ more sophisticated production techniques such as the olive press and trapetum (pictured left). Many ancient presses still exist in

4182-636: The exceptional amphora deposit uncovered in Rome in Castro Pretorio at the end of the 1800s, he collected almost 200 inscriptions from amphorae and included them in the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum . In his studies of the amphora deposit he was the first to elaborate a classification of types, the so-called "Dressel table", which still is used today for many types. Subsequent studies on Roman amphorae have produced more detailed classifications, which usually are named after

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4264-564: The fragments, later wetted with calcium hydroxide (calce viva), remained to create a hill now named Monte Testaccio , 45 m (148 ft) high and more than 1 kilometre in circumference. Amphora is a Greco-Roman word developed in ancient Greek during the Bronze Age . The Romans acquired it during the Hellenization that occurred in the Roman Republic . Cato is the first known literary person to use it. The Romans turned

4346-583: The ground to induce sweating and decay before they are ground. According to the Geoponica , salt and a little nitre are added when oil is stored. In countries of the levant, a sharp-tasting green oil was sometimes extracted from unripe olives, known in medieval times as anpeqinon ( Ancient Greek : ὀμφάκιον, ὀμφάχινον ; Arabic : زيت الأنفاق ), being a corruption of the Latin words oleum omphacium and used in cuisine and in medicine. Today, this oil

4428-435: The higher smoke point and milder flavour. Extra virgin oils have a smoke point around 180–215 °C (356–419 °F), with higher-quality oils having a higher smoke point, whereas refined light olive oil has a smoke point up to 230 °C (446 °F). That they can be used for deep frying is contrary to the common misconception that there are no olive oils with a smoke point as high as many other vegetable oils . In

4510-412: The island of Cos for the transportation of wine from the 4th century BC until middle imperial times. Cretan containers also were popular for the transportation of wine and can be found around the Mediterranean from Augustan times until the 3rd century AD. During the late empire period, north-African types dominated amphora production. The so-called African I and II types were widely used from the 2nd until

4592-494: The lands of the king and the queen. These belonged to a library of clay tablets perfectly preserved by having been baked in the fire that destroyed the palace. A later source is the frequent mentions of oil in the Tanakh . Dynastic Egyptians before 2000 BC imported olive oil from Crete, Syria and Canaan , and oil was an important item of commerce and wealth. Remains of olive oil have been found in jugs over 4,000 years old in

4674-433: The late 4th century AD. Other types from the eastern Mediterranean (Gaza), such as the so-called Late Roman 4, became very popular between the 4th and the 7th century AD, while Italic productions ceased. The largest known wreck of an amphorae cargo ship, carrying 6,000 pots, was discovered off the coast of Kefalonia , an Ionian island off the coast of Greece . Some modern winemakers and brewers use amphorae to provide

4756-417: The long form for metrical reasons, and Herodotus has the short form. Ventris and Chadwick's translation is "carried on both sides." Amphorae varied greatly in height. The largest stands as tall as 1.5 metres (4.9 feet) high, while some were less than 30 centimetres (12 inches) high - the smallest were called amphoriskoi (literally "little amphorae"). Most were around 45 centimetres (18 inches) high. There

4838-542: The mid-5th century BC, this type was rarely produced. The pelike is a special type of belly amphora, with the belly placed lower, so that the widest point of the vessel is near its bottom. The pelike was introduced around the end of the 6th century BC. Another special type is the Panathenaic prize amphora , with black-figure decoration, produced exclusively as prize vessels for the Panathenaia and retaining

4920-456: The misconception, heating at these high heats is theorised to impact taste or nutrition. The Roman Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican churches use olive oil for the oil of catechumens (used to bless and strengthen those preparing for baptism) and oil of the sick (used to confer the Sacrament of anointing of the sick or extreme unction). Olive oil mixed with a perfuming agent such as balsam

5002-452: The oil is consumed, whereupon the rest of the cotton burns out. Olive oil is a usual offering to churches and cemeteries. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints uses virgin olive oil that has been blessed by the priesthood for anointing the sick. In Jewish observance, olive oil was the only fuel allowed to be used in the seven-branched menorah in the Mishkan service during

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5084-564: The oil was made by a process where olives were placed in woven mats and squeezed. The oil was collected in vats. This process was known from the Bronze Age , was used by the Egyptians, and continued to be used through the Hellenistic period . The importance of olive oil as a commercial commodity increased after the Roman conquest of Egypt, Greece and Asia Minor led to more trade along the Mediterranean. Olive trees were planted throughout

5166-582: The olive oil in Spain. The world's largest olive oil mill ( almazara , in Spanish), capable of processing 2,500 tonnes of olives per day, is in the town of Villacarrillo , Jaén. Italian major producers are the regions of Calabria and, above all, Apulia . Many PDO and PGI extra-virgin olive oil are produced in these regions. Extra-virgin olive oil is also produced in Tuscany , in cities including Lucca , Florence , and Siena , which are also included in

5248-458: The owner of the workshop. Painted stamps, tituli picti , recorded the weight of the container and the contents, and were applied after the amphora was filled. Today, stamps are used to allow historians to track the flow of trade goods and recreate ancient trade networks. The first systematic classification of Roman amphorae types was undertaken by the German scholar Heinrich Dressel . Following

5330-492: The particular event they were awarded for. Painted amphorae were also used for funerary purposes, often in special types such as the loutrophoros . Especially in earlier periods, outsize vases were used as grave markers, while some amphorae were used as containers for the ashes of the dead. By the Roman period vase-painting had largely died out, and utilitarian amphorae were normally the only type produced. Various different types of amphorae were popular at different times: On

5412-440: The percentage is far higher in some Mediterranean countries. The International Olive Council requires the median of the fruity attribute to be higher than zero for a given olive oil in order to meet the criteria of extra virgin olive oil classification. Virgin olive oil is a lesser grade of virgin oil, with free acidity of up to 2.0%, and is judged to have a good taste, but may include some sensory defects. Refined olive oil

5494-500: The period 2016 to 2021, world production of olive oil was 3.1 million metric tons (3.4 million short tons). Spain produced 44% of world production. The next largest producers were Italy, Greece, Tunisia, Turkey and Morocco. Villacarrillo , Jaén , Andalucía , Spain is a center of olive oil production. Spain's olive oil production derives 75% from the region of Andalucía , particularly within Jaén province which produces 70% of

5576-404: The prize-winner. They depicted goddess Athena on one side (as seen on the second image on this page) and the athletic event on the other side, e.g. a scene of wrestling or running contest etc. By the Roman period utilitarian amphorae were normally the only type produced. The first type of Roman amphora, Dressel 1, appears in central Italy in the late 2nd century BC. This type had thick walls and

5658-619: The production of olive oil is assumed to have started before 4000 BC. Olive trees were certainly cultivated by the Late Minoan period (1500 BC) in Crete, and perhaps as early as the Early Minoan. The cultivation of olive trees in Crete became particularly intense in the post-palatial period and played an important role in the island's economy, as it did across the Mediterranean. Later, as Greek colonies were established in other parts of

5740-469: The same workshops used for the production of Dressel 1 which quickly ceased to be used. At the same time in Cuma (southern Italy) the production of the cadii cumani type starts (Dressel 21–22). These containers were mainly used for the transportation of fruit and were used until the middle imperial times. At the same time, in central Italy, the so-called Spello amphorae, small containers, were produced for

5822-526: The scholar who studied them. For the neo-Phoenician types see the work by Maña published in 1951, and the revised classification by Van der Werff in 1977–1978. The Gallic amphorae have been studied by Laubenheimer in a study published in 1989, whereas the Cretan amphorae have been analyzed by Marangou-Lerat. Beltràn studied the Spanish types in 1970. Adriatic types have been studied by Lamboglia in 1955. For

5904-423: The stages of maturity, olive fruit changes colour from green to violet, and then black. Olive oil taste characteristics depend on the stage of ripeness at which olive fruits are collected. Olive oil is an important cooking oil in countries surrounding the Mediterranean, and it forms one of the three staple food plants of Mediterranean cuisine , the other two being wheat (as in pasta , bread, and couscous ), and

5986-475: The synthesis of cadmium selenide quantum dots . The Ranieri Filo della Torre is an international literary prize for writings about extra virgin olive oil. It yearly honors poetry, fiction and non-fiction about extra virgin olive oil. Olive oil is produced by grinding olives and extracting the oil by mechanical or chemical means. Green olives usually produce more bitter oil, and overripe olives can produce oil with fermentation defects, so for good olive oil care

6068-661: The transportation of wine. On the Adriatic coast the older types were replaced by the Lamboglia 2 type, a wine amphora commonly produced between the end of the 2nd and the 1st century BC. This type develops later into the Dressel 6A which becomes dominant during Augustan times. In the Gallic provinces the first examples of Roman amphorae were local imitations of pre-existent types such as Dressel 1, Dressel 2–4, Pascual 1, and Haltern 70. The more typical Gallic production begins within

6150-553: The voluntary United States Department of Agriculture labeling standards in the United States: Extra virgin olive oil is the highest grade of virgin olive oil derived by cold mechanical extraction without use of solvents or refining methods. It contains no more than 0.8% free acidity , and is judged to have a superior taste, having some fruitiness and no defined sensory defects. Extra virgin olive oil accounts for less than 10% of oil in many producing countries;

6232-501: The word exists. There was perhaps an as yet unidentified native Etruscan word for the vase that pre-empted the adoption of amphora . The Latin word derived from the Greek amphoreus ( ἀμφορεύς ), a shortened form of amphiphoreus ( ἀμφιφορεύς ), a compound word combining amphi- ("on both sides", "twain") and phoreus ("carrier"), from pherein ("to carry"), referring to the vessel's two carrying handles on opposite sides. The amphora appears as 𐀀𐀠𐀡𐀩𐀸 , a-pi-po-re-we , in

6314-465: Was a significant degree of standardisation in some variants; the wine amphora held a standard measure of about 39 litres (41 US qt), giving rise to the amphora quadrantal as a unit of measure in the Roman Empire. In all, approximately 66 distinct types of amphora have been identified. Further, the term also stands for an ancient Roman unit of measurement for liquids. The volume of a Roman amphora

6396-417: Was also popular as a form of birth control; Aristotle in his History of Animals recommends applying a mixture of olive oil combined with either oil of cedar , ointment of lead , or ointment of frankincense to the cervix to prevent pregnancy. It is not clear when and where olive trees were first domesticated. The modern olive tree may have originated in ancient Persia and Mesopotamia and spread to

6478-489: Was also used to prepare the holy anointing oil used for priests, kings, prophets, and others. Olive oil is also a natural and safe lubricant , and can be used to lubricate kitchen machinery (grinders, blenders, cookware, etc.). It can also be used for illumination (oil lamps) or as the base for soaps and detergents. Some cosmetics also use olive oil as their base, and it can be used as a substitute for machine oil. Olive oil has also been used as both solvent and ligand in

6560-418: Was held to be more precious than rival Poseidon 's gift of a salt spring. There are many olive cultivars , each with a particular flavor, texture, and shelf life that make them more or less suitable for different applications, such as direct human consumption on bread or in salads, indirect consumption in domestic cooking or catering, or industrial uses such as animal feed or engineering applications. During

6642-437: Was one cubic foot , c. 26.026 L . Roman amphorae were wheel-thrown terracotta containers. During the production process the body was made first and then left to dry partially. Then coils of clay were added to form the neck, the rim, and the handles. Once the amphora was complete, the maker then treated the interior with resin that would prevent permeation of stored liquids. The reconstruction of these stages of production

6724-474: Was produced from fully developed and ripe olives harvested solely from the apex of the tree, and lightly pressed, "for what flows from light pressure is very sweet and very thin". The remaining olives are pressed with a heavier weight, and vary in ripeness. Inferior oil is produced from unripe olives that are stored for extended periods of time until they grow soft or begin to shrivel to become more fit for grinding. Others are left for extended periods in pits in

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