Misplaced Pages

#768231

115-478: Though lectures are much criticised as a teaching method , universities have not yet found practical alternative teaching methods for the large majority of their courses. Critics point out that lecturing is mainly a one-way method of communication that does not involve significant audience participation but relies upon passive learning . Therefore, lecturing is often contrasted to active learning . Lectures delivered by talented speakers can be highly stimulating; at

230-430: A workplace environment, the establishment of an absence culture creates an attitude that all employees deserve to have a certain number of days of absence, regardless of whether or not they are actually sick. Therefore, if an employee has not used the maximum number of absence days, "he may feel that he is carrying an unfair share of the workload". Jackson and Williams (1985) proposed that if someone feels that others in

345-424: A chalk-board, exercises, class questions and discussions, or student presentations. The use of multimedia presentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint has changed the form of lectures, e.g. video, graphics, websites, or prepared exercises may be included. Most commonly, however, only outlines composed of "bullet points" are presented. Critics such as Edward Tufte contend that this style of lecture bombards

460-451: A classroom can be either facilitated by a teacher or by a student. A discussion could also follow a presentation or a demonstration. Class discussions can enhance student understanding, add context to academic content, broaden student perspectives, highlight opposing viewpoints, reinforce knowledge, build confidence, and support community in learning. The opportunities for meaningful and engaging in-class discussion may vary widely, depending on

575-444: A cognizance of cycle that students may have to be guided to completely debrief. Teachers should not be overly critical of relapses in behaviour. Once the experience is completely integrated, the students will exit this cycle and get on with the next. Debriefing is a daily exercise in most professions. It might be in psychology, healthcare, politics, or business. This is also accepted as an everyday necessity. Classroom Action Research

690-454: A decrease in the productivity of the employees. Social loafing can affect group cohesion and lead to an in-group and an outgroup. In groups are working hard to make much effort and contribute to the whole group's success; the outgroup is those who are not contributing much and are lazy. It can lead to increased conflicts between employees conducting to decrease in productivity. Individuals sometimes don't give much effort when they notice that

805-433: A decrement in attention during the first 25 minutes. Lloyd (1968) and Scerbo et al. (1992) showed that students take less and less notes as lectures proceed. Bligh shows that after a short break filled by buzz group discussion, attention will recover somewhat. The largest section of Bligh's book is devoted to lecturing technique, particularly the organisation of lectures, how to make a point, the effectiveness of taking notes,

920-434: A desire to learn. Inquiry learning is another modern teaching method. A popular teaching method that is being used by many teachers is hands on activities. Hands-on activities are activities that require movement, talking, and listening. Social loafing In social psychology , social loafing is the phenomenon of a person exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when working alone. It

1035-457: A difference in social loafing was present between the two cultures. Earley formed groups from both countries similar in demographics and in time spent with each other (participants in each of the groups had known each other for three to five weeks). Each group was tasked with completing various forms of paperwork similar to work they would be required to do in their profession. The paperwork was designed to take two to five minutes for each item, and

1150-566: A fact through a combination of visual evidence and associated reasoning . Demonstrations are similar to written storytelling and examples in that they allow students to personally relate to the presented information. Memorization of a list of facts is a detached and impersonal experience, whereas the same information, conveyed through demonstration, becomes personally relatable. Demonstrations help to raise student interest and reinforce memory retention because they provide connections between facts and real-world applications of those facts. Lectures, on

1265-628: A group can also be affected by social loafing. Instead of focusing on excellence and achieving a goal, they may start to compare their effort with those around them. It can lower their feelings and satisfaction and potentially reduce their performance. If individuals feel that others are doing less work, perhaps relying on them, they might feel exploited and consequently reduce the amount of work they do; they become demotivated. On April 14, 1994, two U.S. Air Force F-15 fighters accidentally shot down two U.S. Army Black Hawk helicopters over northern Iraq , killing all 26 soldiers on board. The details of

SECTION 10

#1732780536769

1380-403: A group can bring a contribution that is unique and that complements the project, loafing is highly unlikely to occur. That contribution could be considered unique, if each member had a specific task that only he or she could and would do that would contribute to the completion of the project. Authors from Texas Wesleyan University confirmed that “individuals are less likely to loaf when they feel

1495-413: A group putting in less effort or of poor coordination within the group. In 1974, Alan Ingham, James Graves, and colleagues replicated Ringelmann's experiment using two types of group: 1) Groups with real participants in groups of various sizes (consistent with Ringelmann's setup) or 2) Pseudo-groups with only one real participant. In the pseudo-groups, the researchers' assistants only pretended to pull on

1610-497: A long history in the sciences and in social movements . Union halls , for instance, historically have hosted numerous free and public lectures on a wide variety of matters. Similarly, churches, community centers , libraries , museums , and other organizations have hosted lectures in furtherance of their missions or their constituents' interests. Lectures represent a continuation of oral tradition in contrast to textual communication in books and other media. Lectures may be considered

1725-413: A personal connection between students and the topic of study and it helps students think in a less personally biased way. Group projects and discussions are examples of this teaching method. Teachers may employ collaboration to assess student's abilities to work as a team, leadership skills, or presentation abilities. Collaborative discussions can take a variety of forms, such as fishbowl discussions . It

1840-426: A potent teaching method with potentially large impacts on student achievement. It can also have some negative side effects under certain conditions. Small effects or lack of statistically significant effects have been found when evaluating many teaching methods rigorously with randomized controlled trials . Many teaching methods targeting cognitive skills show quickly disappearing impacts. About 3000 BC, with

1955-530: A psychological state, it proposes that Expectancy multiplied by Instrumentality multiplied by Valence of Outcome produces the resulting Motivational Force. Karau, et al. , concluded that social loafing occurred because there was usually a stronger perceived contingency between individual effort and valued outcomes when working individually. When working collectively, other factors frequently determine performance, and valued outcomes are also divided among all group members. All individuals are assumed to try to maximize

2070-476: A public university found that social loafing not only exists, but may also be prevalent in the online learning classroom. Although only 2 percent of NWC and 8 percent of public university students self-reported social loafing, 8 percent of NWC and 77 percent of public university students sensed that others engaged in social loafing. Additional findings generally verify face-to-face social loafing findings from previous studies. The researchers concluded that injustice in

2185-545: A research method to challenge them to construct new meanings and knowledge . In schools, the research methods are simplified, allowing the students to access the methods at their own levels. Questioning is one of the oldest documented teaching methods, and can be used by teachers in a variety of ways for a variety of purposes including, checking for understanding, clarifying terms, exposing misconceptions, and gathering evidence of learning to inform subsequent instructional decisions. Named after Socrates , socratic questioning

2300-408: A subject provided the instructor has effective writing and speaking skills. Developed by Eric Mazur, peer instruction is a teaching method designed to improve the lecture. It includes both pre-class and in-class workflows. The in-class workflow intersperses teacher presentations with conceptual questions, called Concept Tests. These are designed to expose common student misconceptions in understanding

2415-485: A table together, while distributed groups did the same task at separate computers that allowed for electronic, networked communication. The same technology was used by both co-located and distributed groups. Chidambaram and Tung found that group size mattered immensely in a group's performance. The smaller the group, the more likely each member was to participate, regardless of range (dispersed or co-located). The main difference stated between distributed and co-located groups

SECTION 20

#1732780536769

2530-418: A task is new or complex that employees should work alone, while tasks that are well-known and have room for individual effort are better when done in groups. In order to diminish social loafing from a group, several strategies could be put forward. Social loafing primarily happens when an individual unconsciously or consciously exerts less effort due to a decrease in social awareness . In order to counteract

2645-429: A teacher must find out what works best in a particular situation. Each teaching and research method, model and family is essential to the practice of technology studies. Teachers have their strengths and weaknesses, and adopt particular models to complement strengths and contradict weaknesses. Here, the teacher is well aware of the type of knowledge to be constructed. At other times, teachers equip their students with

2760-556: A teaching assistant), seminars , workshops , observation , practical application, case examples / case study , experiential learning / active learning , computer -based instruction, and tutorials . In schools , the prevalent mode of student-teacher interaction is lessons . The term " parlor lecture" gained currency throughout the British Commonwealth of Nations and the United States of America during

2875-493: A type of grey literature . The noun "lecture" dates from 14th century, meaning "action of reading, that which is read," from the Latin lectus , pp. of legere "to read." Its subsequent meaning as "oral discourse on a given subject before an audience for purposes of instruction " is from the 16th century. The verb "to lecture" is attested from 1590. The noun "lectern" refers to the reading desk used by lecturers. The practice in

2990-415: A variety of purposes. It takes into consideration the experiences and facilitates reflection and feedback. Debriefing may involve feedback to the students or among the students, but this is not the intent. The intent is to allow the students to "thaw" and to judge their experience and progress toward change or transformation. The intent is to help them come to terms with their experience. This process involves

3105-423: Is a method of finding out what works best in your own classroom so that you can improve student learning . We know a great deal about good teaching in general (e.g. McKeachie, 1999; Chickering and Gamson, 1987; Weimer, 1996), but every teaching situation is unique in terms of content, level, student skills, and learning styles, teacher skills and teaching styles, and many other factors. To maximize student learning,

3220-560: Is a restaurant such as McDonald's where some employees lounge about while others are eager to take an order. These scenarios all express the problems that social loafing creates in a workplace, and businesses seek to find a way to counteract these trends. Larsen mentions ways that a business could change its operations in order to fight the negative effects of social loafing. For one, research has shown that if each employee has his performance individually measured, he will put in more effort than if it were not measured. Another person interested in

3335-528: Is a small voter turnout. Some countries enforce compulsory voting to eliminate this effect. Some people feel that others in the group will leave them to do all the work while they take the credit. Because people do not want to feel like the "sucker", they wait to see how much effort others will put into a group before they put any in. If all the members try to avoid being the sucker, then everyone's effort will be significantly less than it would be if all of them were working as hard as they could. For example, in

3450-399: Is an important area of interest in order to understand group work. While the opposite of social loafing, " organizational citizenship behavior ", can create significant productivity increases, both of these behaviors can significantly impact the performance of organizations. Social loafing is a behavior that organizations want to eliminate. Understanding how and why people become social loafers

3565-509: Is as effective, but not more effective, as any other teaching method in transmitting information. Nevertheless, lecturing is not the most effective method for promoting student thought, changing attitudes, or teaching behavioral skills. Bligh summarises research on memory to show the significance of the meaningfulness of material on retention (Marks and Miller 1964) and the importance of immediate rehearsal of information (Bassey 1968). He relates his own research on arousal during lectures to suggest

Lecture - Misplaced Pages Continue

3680-448: Is connected to the use of covert retrieval practice . Feedback is targeted information given to students about their current performance relative to their desired learning goals. It should aim to (and be capable of producing) improvement in students’ learning, as well as being bidirectional by giving teachers feedback on student performance which in turn helps teachers plan the next steps in learning. Feedback in its various forms can be

3795-403: Is contagious and hard to correct. Once identified by the group or team leader, it is their responsibility to reassess and put into motion new rules and expectations for everyone. People could simply feel "lost in the crowd", so they feel that their effort would not be rewarded even if they put it forth. This idea can also cause people to feel as though they can simply "hide in the crowd" and avoid

3910-459: Is critical to the effective functioning, competitiveness and effectiveness of an organization. There are certain examples of social loafing in the workplace that are discussed by James Larsen in his essay "Loafing on the Job". For example, builders working vigorously on a construction site while some of their colleagues are lounging on rock walls or leaning on their shovels doing nothing. Another example

4025-503: Is described by his pupil Plato as a form of questioning where the teacher probes underlying misconceptions to lead students towards deeper understanding. Cold calling is a teaching methodology based around the teacher asking questions to students without letting the students know beforehand who will be called upon to answer by the teacher. Cold calling aims to increase inclusion in the classroom and active learning as well as student engagement and participation. Cold calling in education

4140-424: Is distinct from cold-calling in sales which is a form of business solicitation. Cold calling as a teaching methodology has been linked to increased student participation, increased student voluntary participation, increased student engagement, increased student in class gender equity and no decrease in student comfort levels in class. There is some evidence that the effectiveness of cold calling as teaching method

4255-525: Is important for teachers to provide students with instruction on how to collaborate. This includes teaching them rules to conversation, such as listening, and how to use argumentation versus arguing. After some preparation and with clearly defined roles, a discussion may constitute most of a lesson, with the teacher only giving short feedback at the end or in the following lesson. Some examples of collaborative learning tips and strategies for teachers are; to build trust, establish group interactions, keeps in mind

4370-486: Is in trouble, people are less likely to help if other people are present. People assume someone else will help or take action. It has been noticed that even in emergencies, a bystander is less likely to help. An individual's expectations will also affect their behavior; if the group size is large and they think people will slack off or not put in much effort, someone in the group may think, why should I make an effort. An individual's expectations, if not fulfilled, can lead to

4485-413: Is measured through both formal and informal forms of assessment , including group projects, student portfolios, and class participation. Teaching and assessments are connected; student learning is continuously measured during teacher instruction. The lecture method is just one of several teaching methods, though in schools it's usually considered the primary one. The lecture method is convenient for

4600-491: Is measured through objectively scored tests and assessments. In the Student-Centered Approach to Learning , while teachers are the authority figure in this model, teachers and students play an equally active role in the learning process. This approach is also called authoritative. The teacher's primary role is to coach and facilitate student learning and overall comprehension of material. Student learning

4715-443: Is much like people's tendency to be part of a group project, but rely heavily on just a few individuals to complete the work. Generally, social loafers regularly follow the discussions and content of online communities, but choose not to expand on posts or add to the knowledge of the community. Additionally, participation in online communities is usually voluntary; therefore there is no guarantee that community members will contribute to

Lecture - Misplaced Pages Continue

4830-491: Is not heard in decision-making because of their ethnicity, gender or other arbitrary factors. Instead of fighting for their voice to be heard many group members will decide to loaf in these circumstances. Research regarding social loafing online is currently relatively sparse, but is growing. A 2008 study of 227 undergraduate and graduate students enrolled in web-enabled courses at the Naval War College (NWC) and

4945-499: Is seen as one of the main reasons groups are sometimes less productive than the combined performance of their members working as individuals. Research on social loafing began with rope pulling experiments by Max Ringelmann , who found that members of a group tended to exert less effort in pulling a rope than did individuals alone. In more recent research, studies involving modern technology, such as online and distributed groups , have also shown clear evidence of social loafing. Many of

5060-490: Is voting in the United States. Even though most people say that voting is important, and a right that should be exercised, every election a sub-optimal percentage of Americans turn out to vote, especially in presidential elections (only 51 percent in the 2000 election). One vote may feel very small in a group of millions, so people may not think a vote is worth the time and effort. If too many people think this way, there

5175-1087: The Socratic method , a form of inquiry and debate intended to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate ideas. Many commentators on the Christian New Testament make reference to the teaching methodology of Jesus Christ , who "used a variety of teaching techniques to impress his teaching on his hearers". It has been the intent of many educators since Plato, such as the Roman educator Quintilian , who lived shortly after Jesus, to find specific, interesting ways to encourage students to use their intelligence and to help them to learn. Comenius , in Bohemia , wanted all children to learn. In his The World in Pictures , he created an illustrated textbook of things children would be familiar with in everyday life and used it to teach children. Rabelais described how

5290-472: The Socratic method . Experimental pedagogy is a pedagogical trend that appeared at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, whose task was to introduce, in addition to observation, the experimental method into the study of teaching. This field of study employs scientific methods to investigate teaching and learning, aiming to improve educational practices by testing different approaches and measuring their effectiveness. The main credit for

5405-435: The collective effort model by Karau and Williams (1993, 2001) details that individuals who are more motivated are more likely to engage in social facilitation (that is, to increase one's efforts when in the presence of others) whereas those who are less motivated are more likely to engage in social loafing. Researchers have determined that two factors which determine an individual's motivation, and subsequently whether or not

5520-399: The medieval university was for the instructor to read from an original source to a class of students who took notes on the lecture. The reading from original sources evolved into the reading of glosses on an original and then more generally to lecture notes. Throughout much of history, the diffusion of knowledge via handwritten lecture notes was an essential element of academic life. Even in

5635-413: The tutorial system , in the 19th century. This involves very small groups, from one to three students, meeting on a regular basis with tutors (originally college fellows , and now also doctoral students and post-docs ) to discuss and debate pre-prepared work (either essays or problems). This is the central teaching method of these universities in both arts and science subjects, and has been compared to

5750-542: The CEM include: A 2005 study by Laku Chidambaram and Lai Lai Tung based their research model on Latané's social impact theory , and hypothesized that as group size and dispersion grew, the group's work would be affected in the following areas: Members would contribute less in both quantity and quality, final group output would be of lower quality, and a group's output would be affected both by individual factors and contextual factors. A sample of 240 undergraduate business students

5865-447: The advent of writing , education became more conscious or self-reflecting , with specialized occupations such as scribe and astronomer requiring particular skills and knowledge. Philosophy in ancient Greece led to questions of educational method entering national discourse. In his literary work The Republic , Plato described a system of instruction that he felt would lead to an ideal state. In his dialogues, Plato described

SECTION 50

#1732780536769

5980-480: The amount of reward he expects to receive, he will work less hard in groups." In a 1993 meta-analysis , Karau and Williams proposed the Collective Effort Model (CEM) , which is used to generate predictions. The CEM integrates expectancy theories with theories of group-level social comparison and social identity to account for studies that examine individual effort in collective settings. From

6095-753: The audience with unnecessary and possibly distracting or confusing graphics. A modified lecture format, generally presented in 5 to 15 minute short segments, is now commonly presented as video, for example in massive open online courses (MOOCs) or in programs such as the Khan Academy . Bligh, in What's the Use of Lectures? , argues that lectures "represent a conception of education in which teachers who know give knowledge to students who do not and are therefore supposed to have nothing worth contributing." Based on his review of numerous studies, he concludes that lecturing

6210-426: The averse effects of not applying themselves. When enthusiasm for the overall goal or task is diminished, overall contribution will drop. When one feels that their overall efforts are reduced or unimportant, they will likely become social loafers. Social psychological literature has found that the level of motivation one has to engage in an activity influences one's behavior in a group setting. This finding, deemed

6325-462: The causes of social loafing stem from individual members' feeling their individual effort will not matter to the group. This is seen as one of the main reasons groups are sometimes less productive than the combined performance of their members working as individuals, but should be distinguished from the accidental coordination problems that groups sometimes experience. Several studies found the most prevalent motivational origins of social loafing to be

6440-464: The change in social roles, genetic and historical roles continue to make men more individualistic and women more relational. In 1999, Naoki Kugihara conducted another study in Japan on social loafing tendencies using similar methods as Max Ringelmann's rope-pulling experiment. He discovered that, when in a group, 40 percent more men exhibited less effort when performing the task than women, and attributed

6555-486: The complexity of the task. When a group member does not feel that his or her effort is justified in the context of the overall group, the individual will be less willing to expend the effort. If the group size is large, members can feel that their contribution will not be worth much to the overall cause because so many other contributions can or should occur. This leads people to not contribute as much or at all in large groups as they might have in smaller groups. One example

6670-566: The concept to be learned allowing the teacher to give precise feedback on the quality of the explanation. Demonstrating, which is also called the coaching style or the Lecture-cum-Demonstration method, is the process of teaching through examples or experiments . The framework mixes the instructional strategies of information imparting and showing how . For example, a science teacher may teach an idea by experimenting with students. A demonstration may be used to prove

6785-877: The constitution of experimental pedagogy as a special direction and the development of its theoretical foundations belongs to two German pedagogues, Ernst Meumann and Wilhelm August Lay , who are also considered the founders of experimental pedagogy. There are also Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon in France, Joseph Mayer Rice , Edward Thorndike and G. Stanley Hall in America, Édouard Claparède and Robert Dottrens in Switzerland, Alexander Petrovich Nechaev in Russia, etc. Key characteristics of experimental pedagogy include being evidence-based, rigorous in study design, and oriented towards improvement. The field investigates

6900-432: The contribution is unique, and no other group member can contribute the skills to the task that they can.” Furthermore, when the project has a personal meaning to them, they are more involved and do not practice social loafing. Bystander behavior is the inhibiting influence of the presence of others on a person's willingness to help someone in need. When the group's size is large, there will be Bystander behavior. If someone

7015-511: The credit that they deserve. When people assess the risks involved in contributing to online communities, they generally avoid participation because of the uncertainty of who the other contributors and readers are and the fear of their work being undervalued. Although studies justify the notion that people often do not contribute to online communities, some research shows that older adults are more likely to participate in online communities than younger people because different generations tend to use

SECTION 60

#1732780536769

7130-479: The critics, include different types of learning, use real-world problems, consider assessment, create a pre-test, and post-test, use different strategies, help students use inquiry and use technology for easier learning. The most common type of collaborative method of teaching in a class is classroom discussion. It is also a democratic way of handling a class, where each student is given equal opportunity to interact and put forth their views. A discussion taking place in

7245-500: The desired learning objectives. In a teacher-centered approach to learning, teachers are the main authority figure in this model. Students are viewed as "empty vessels" whose primary role is to passively receive information (via lectures and direct instruction) with the end goal of testing and assessment. It is the primary role of teachers to pass knowledge and information on to their students. In this model, teaching and assessment are viewed as two separate entities. Student learning

7360-488: The difference to the tendency to have an interdependent self-concept. In 1989, Christopher P. Earley hypothesized that social loafing would be mitigated in collectivist cultures that focused more on achievement of the group than the individual. He conducted a study in the United States and China , which are considered to be opposites in their cultural valuation of groups (with the U.S. being more individualistic and China being more collectivist ), in order to determine if

7475-435: The differences between ... ?;" "How does this relate to your own experience?;" "What do you think causes .... ?;" "What are the implications of .... ?" It is clear from "the impact of teaching strategies on learning strategies in first-year higher education cannot be overlooked nor over interpreted, due to the importance of students' personality and academic motivation which also partly explain why students learn

7590-434: The distribution of rewards increases social loafing, and suggest that self-perceived dominance negatively affects individual participation in group activities. Social loafing, also known as " lurking ", greatly affects the development and growth of online communities. The term social loafing refers to the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually. This phenomenon

7705-421: The effectiveness of various teaching methods, the impact of instructional materials, and factors influencing student learning. Experimental pedagogy has the potential to significantly impact education by offering evidence-based support for effective practices. Examples of its application include studies on the use of technology in the classroom, the influence of different teaching methods on student motivation, and

7820-416: The encouragement of active learning with phenomena such as social loafing and evaluation apprehension causing audience members to be reluctant to participate. A possible solution to the encouragement of audience involvement in lectures is the use of an audience response system which allows audience members to participate anonymously. Shoufan (2020) argues that with a proper usage of learning technology,

7935-413: The examination of factors affecting student achievement. Examples of experimental pedagogy in educational action include: Newer teaching methods may incorporate television, radio, internet, multi media, and other modern devices. Some educators believe that the use of technology , while facilitating learning to some degree, is not a substitute for educational methods that encourage critical thinking and

8050-468: The expected utility of their actions. The CEM also acknowledges that some valued outcomes do not depend on performance. For example, exerting strong effort when working on intrinsically meaningful tasks or with highly respected team members may result in self-satisfaction or approval from the group, even if the high effort had little to no impact on tangible performance outcomes. Notable or novel findings by Karau and Williams following their implementation of

8165-399: The goal was easily attainable and very valuable. On the other hand, motivation was lowest when the goal seemed impossible and not at all valuable. Unfortunately, the presence of a group can influence one's perception of these two factors in a number of ways. For instance, working in a group may reduce or increase one's expectancy of attaining a goal. That is, depending on the qualities of

8280-451: The goals set by the management are complex and typical and are challenging to achieve. So when the group size is large, few employees don't bother to give their full efforts to the projects. The goals which are pretty short-term and straightforward and do not pose any challenge for the employees; they feel demotivated. Thus, showing minimal interest in achieving the goals. Employees who have fewer skills or are performing average are put in

8395-471: The group are slacking off or that others will loaf, he will lower his effort to match that of the others. This can occur whether it is apparent that the others are slacking or if someone simply believes that the group is slacking. For example, in the Latane, et al ., study above, if a participant heard the others making less noise than anticipated, he could have lowered his effort in an attempt to equal that of

8510-420: The group members, an individual may find herself in a group of high achievers who work hard and are guaranteed success, whereas another may equally find himself in a group of lazy or distracted people, making success seem unattainable. Therefore, the link between one's personal efforts and success is not direct, as our success is influenced by the work of others. Similarly, the value of the goal may be contingent on

8625-455: The group members. For instance, if we must share success with all other group members, then the value of the goal is reduced compared to the value of the goal from an individual perspective. Hence, the dynamic of the group is an important key in determining a person's motivation and the likelihood of social loafing. Additional factors which have been found to influence the likelihood of social loafing include one's gender, cultural background, and

8740-418: The group of top performers most of the time. Said employees will develop an inferiority complex, resulting in average employees depending on efficient team members for task accomplishment. Social loafing can have adverse effects on a group or an individual in the workplace. Some individuals can be seen as lazy or not team players. It can have an impact on the motivation of the whole group. Individuals within

8855-458: The help of lectures. Many university courses relying on lectures supplement them with smaller discussion sections, tutorials , or laboratory experiment sessions as a means of further actively involving students. Often these supplemental sections are led by graduate students , tutors , teaching assistants , or teaching fellows rather than senior faculty . Those other forms of academic teaching include discussion ( recitation if conducted by

8970-696: The idea of social loafing is Kenneth Price, from the University of Texas. Price conducted a social loafing experiment in order to examine whether two key factors that he suspected played a role in the way social loafing arose in work groups. These two factors were dispensability and fairness. The experiment that he conducted involved 514 people who were divided into 144 teams that were set to meet for fourteen weeks. The projects assigned to these people were complex and called for diverse skills from many different individuals in order to be fully completed. The experiments findings did in fact corroborate Price's suspicions in

9085-558: The incident were analyzed by West Point Professor Scott Snook in his book Friendly Fire . In his summary of the fallacy of social redundancy, Snook points to social loafing as a contributor to the failure of the AWACS aircraft team to track the helicopters and prevent the shootdown. Snook asserts that responsibility was "spread so thin by the laws of social impact and confused authority relationships that no one felt compelled to act". According to Hwee Hoon Tan and Min-Li Tan, social loafing

9200-403: The individual will resort to social loafing versus social facilitation , include the individual's expectations about attaining the goal and the perceived value of the goal. Thus, a person's attitude toward these two factors will influence his or her motivation level and subsequent group behavior. Karau and Williams (1993, 2001) found that motivation was highest when the individual believed that

9315-407: The institution and cost-efficient, especially with larger classroom sizes. This is why lecturing is the standard for most college courses when there can be several hundred students in the classroom at once; lecturing lets professors address the most people at once, in the most general manner, while still conveying the information that they feel is most important, according to the lesson plan. While

9430-406: The internet differently. For example, "older adults are more likely to seek health information, make purchases, and obtain religious information, but less likely to watch videos, download music, play games, and read blogs online". This is perhaps due in part to the fact that some online communities cater to older generations. The content of the website often determines what age group will use or visit

9545-403: The issue of bullying and its negative consequences with the entire class. These discussions have shown to increase the number of students who would help other students when they are victimized. The term "debriefing" refers to conversational sessions that revolve around the sharing and examining of information after a specific event has taken place. Depending on the situation, debriefing can serve

9660-473: The items were turned in to an assistant when completed so that no one could judge their work compared to others. Each participant was given 60 minutes to complete as many items as possible and was separated into either the high-accountability group, where they were told they needed to achieve a group goal , or a low-accountability group, where they were told they were to achieve a goal alone. They were also separated into high and low shared responsibility groups. It

9775-408: The knowledge of the website, discussion forum, bulletin board, or other form of online engagement. Lurkers are reported to constitute over 90 percent of several online groups. The main reason people choose not to contribute to online communities surprisingly does not have to do with societal laziness, but in fact the potential contributors belief that their entries will not be taken seriously or given

9890-404: The lack of an understanding of individual contributions, unchallenging tasks given to the individual, low personal satisfaction from the task, and lack of a united group. Theories investigating why social loafing occurs range from group members' feeling that their contributions will not be noticed to group members' realizing their efforts are not necessary. In a work setting, most managers agree if

10005-492: The lecture can be omitted and completely replaced by learning activities. The effectiveness of traditional lecture is and has been debated. Some advantages of lecturing include: quick exposure to new material, greater teacher control in the classroom, an engaging format, which may complement and clarify course material, and facilitating large-class communication. Lecturing also permits the dissemination of unpublished or not readily available material. Another advantage would be for

10120-421: The lecture method gives the instructor or teacher chances to expose students to unpublished or not readily available material, the students play a passive role which may hinder learning. While this method facilitates large-class communication, the lecturer must make a constant and conscious effort to become aware of student problems and engage the students to give verbal feedback. It can be used to arouse interest in

10235-528: The lecturer to attract students. A vivid personality with a kind and respectful attitude in the classroom may help to recruit prospective Master and PhD students for a lecturer's own academic research. There has been much debate as to whether or not lecturing actually improves student learning in the classroom. Commonly cited disadvantages of lecture include: placing students in a passive (rather than an active) role, encouraging one-way communication, requiring significant out-of-class time for students to engage with

10350-487: The likelihood of this happening, Miguel Herraez conducted a study on students where he used accountability and cooperation when unequal participation is found. The students were encouraged to provide equal participation in the work and to point out sources of conflict that could arise. The conclusion of the study found that providing support to the group members lacking in commitment and creating options for independence among group members lowered social loafing. The support for

10465-563: The material, and lead to student discussion then reteaching if required. While under-researched, both student and teacher explanations remain one of the most utilized teaching methods in teacher practice. Explaining has many sub-categories including the use of analogies to build conceptual understanding. Some modes of explaining include the ‘thinking together’ style where teachers connect student ideas to scientific models. There are also more narrative styles using examples, and learner explanations which require students to give an explanation of

10580-468: The material, and requiring the speaker to possess effective speaking skills. The criticisms of lectures are often summarized by a quote generally misattributed to Mark Twain : College is a place where a professor’s lecture notes go straight to the students’ lecture notes, without passing through the brains of either. While lecturing is generally accepted as an effective form of instruction, there have been some prominent educators who have succeeded without

10695-413: The mid-19th century. It referred to the custom of inviting noted speakers to deliver private lectures, which were typically hosted in the parlors of wealthy and socially influential families. Teaching method A teaching method is a set of principles and methods used by teachers to enable student learning . These strategies are determined partly by the subject matter to be taught, partly by

10810-621: The more likely cause of the performance decline. In contrast with Ringelmann's first findings, Bibb Latané et al. replicated previous social loafing findings while demonstrating that the decreased performance of groups was attributable to reduced individual effort, as distinct from a deterioration due to coordination. They showed this by blindfolding male college students while making them wear headphones that masked all noise. They then asked them to shout both in actual groups and pseudogroups in which they shouted alone but believed they were shouting with others. When subjects believed one other person

10925-403: The other hand, are often geared more towards factual presentation than connective learning. One of the advantages of the demonstration method involves the capability to include different formats and instruction materials to make the learning process engaging. This leads to the activation of several of the learners' senses, creating more learning opportunities. The approach is also beneficial on

11040-454: The others, rather than aiming for the optimum. By setting a goal that is based on maximization, people may feel that there is a set level that the group needs to be achieved. Because of this, they may feel they don't need to work as hard for the overall desired effect. For example, in the Latane et al. clapping and shouting study, people who were alone but told that they were part of a group screaming or clapping could have thought that there

11155-462: The part of the teacher because it is adaptable to both group and individual teaching. While demonstration teaching, however, can be effective in teaching Math, Science, and Art, it can prove ineffective in a classroom setting that calls for the accommodation of the learners' individual needs. Collaboration allows student to actively participate in the learning process by talking with each other and listening to others opinions. Collaboration establishes

11270-574: The relative expertise of the learners, and partly by constraints caused by the learning environment. For a particular teaching method to be appropriate and efficient it has to take into account the learner, the nature of the subject matter, and the type of learning it is supposed to bring about. The approaches for teaching can be broadly classified into teacher-centered and student-centered, although in practice teachers will often adapt instruction by moving back and forth between these methodologies depending on learner prior knowledge, learner expertise, and

11385-404: The rope. The results showed a decrease in the participants' performance. Groups of participants who all exerted effort exhibited the largest declines. Because the pseudo-groups were isolated from coordination effects (since the participant's confederates did not physically pull the rope), Ingham proved that communication alone did not account for the effort decrease, and that motivational losses were

11500-562: The site, and because many forms of online communities appear on sites that focus their attention on older adults, participation is generally higher. Additionally, the ease and availability of operating the websites that host the online community may play a role in the age group that is most likely to participate. For example, some online communities geared toward older adults have simplified the design of their sites in order to enhance their look and usability for older adults. According to Dan J. Rothwell, it takes "the three Cs of motivation" to get

11615-592: The social loafing effect. Further evidence from a similar study showed the effect was related to the collectivist thinking rather than nationality, as individualistic Chinese workers did indeed show a social loafing effect. As the number of people in the group or team increase, people tend to feel deindividuation . This term defines both the dissociation from individual achievement and the decrease of personal accountability, resulting in lower exerted effort for individuals in collaborative environments. This phenomenon can thus decrease overall group effectiveness because it

11730-496: The student Gargantua learned about the world, and what is in it. Much later, Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his Emile , presented methodology to teach children the elements of science and other subjects. During Napoleonic warfare , the teaching methodology of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi of Switzerland enabled refugee children, of a class believed to be unteachable , to learn. He described this in his account of an educational experiment at Stanz. The Prussian education system

11845-489: The subject matter and format of the course. Motivations for holding planned classroom discussion, however, remain consistent. An effective classroom discussion can be achieved by probing more questions among the students, paraphrasing the information received, using questions to develop critical thinking with questions like "Can we take this one step further?;" "What solutions do you think might solve this problem?;" "How does this relate to what we have learned about..?;" "What are

11960-451: The twentieth century, the lecture notes taken by students, or prepared by a scholar for a lecture, have sometimes achieved wide circulation (see, for example, the genesis of Ferdinand de Saussure 's Cours de linguistique générale ). Many lecturers were, and still are, accustomed to simply reading their own notes from the lectern for exactly that purpose. Nevertheless, modern lectures generally incorporate additional activities, e.g. writing on

12075-414: The two factors of dispensability and fairness. Dispensability in a group is described by Price as employees who join a work group and quickly begin to gauge their skills vis à vis their co-workers. If they perceive that their skills are inferior to those around them, they tend to sit back and let the more skilled workers carry the workload. Fairness in a group is when some group members feel that their voice

12190-471: The use of handouts, and ways of obtaining feedback. Early editions of the book contained a reply paid evaluation card. This research showed that the section on alternative teaching methods within lectures was the most highly praised. The conception of the lecture as needing to be a didactic event has been challenged by Meltzer and Manivannan (2002) and Sandry (2005) who maintain that lectures can involve active learning. However, Elliot (2005) sees difficulties in

12305-415: The very least, lectures have survived in academia as a quick, cheap, and efficient way of introducing large numbers of students to a particular field of study. Lectures have a significant role outside the classroom, as well. Academic and scientific awards routinely include a lecture as part of the honor, and academic conferences often center on " keynote addresses ", i.e., lectures. The public lecture has

12420-550: The way they do" that Donche agrees with the previous points made in the above headings but he also believes that student's personalities contribute to their learning style. The way a student interprets and executes the instruction given by a teacher allows them to learn in a more effective and personal way. This interactive instruction is designed for the students to share their thoughts about a wide range of subjects. Class discussions have also proven to be an effective method of bullying prevention and intervention when teachers discuss

12535-416: The weaker students improves their standing while also benefiting the other students. The first known research on the social loafing effect began in 1913 with Max Ringelmann 's study. He found that, when he asked a group of men to pull on a rope , they did not pull as hard collectively as they did when each was pulling alone. This research did not distinguish whether this was the result of the individuals in

12650-431: Was a set level of noise that experimenters were looking for, and so assumed they could work less hard to achieve this level depending on the size of the group. Non-involvement social loafing has been linked to people the non-involvement of the members within the group Studies have shown that groups where the members were not personally involved in the project had a higher chance to experience social loafing. When members of

12765-628: Was a system of mandatory education dating to the early 19th century. Parts of the Prussian education system have served as models for the education systems in a number of other countries, including Japan and the United States . The Prussian model required classroom management skills to be incorporated into the teaching process. The University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge in England developed their distinctive method of teaching,

12880-485: Was found that, consistent with other studies, highly individualistic people performed more poorly on the task when there was high shared responsibility and low accountability than when there was high accountability. The collectivists, however, performed somewhat better on the task when high shared responsibility was present, regardless of how accountable they were supposed to be as compared to when they were working alone. This evidence suggests that collectivist thinking reduces

12995-421: Was randomly split into forty teams (half of the teams were four-person and half eight-person) which were randomly assigned to either a co-located or distributed setting. The participants were to complete a task that asked them to act as a board of directors of a winery with an image problem. They were to find and discuss alternatives, and at the end submit their alternative with rationale. Co-located groups worked at

13110-399: Was shouting, they shouted 82 percent as intensely as they did alone, but with five others, their effort decreased to 74 percent. Latané et al. concluded that increasing the number of people in a group diminished the relative social pressure on each person: "If the individual inputs are not identifiable the person may work less hard. Thus if the person is dividing up the work to be performed or

13225-471: Was the social pressure at least to appear busy that is present in co-located groups. When others are present, people feel the need to look as if they are working hard, while those who are not in the presence of others do not. In 1985, Gabrenya, Wang, and Latane found that in both Chinese and American cultures, social loafing varies between men and women. Women expressed less social loafing than men across different cultures. The authors argued that, regardless of

#768231