Misplaced Pages

#812187

54-598: The Luddites were members of a 19th-century movement of English textile workers who opposed the use of certain types of automated machinery due to concerns relating to worker pay and output quality. They often destroyed the machines in organised raids. Members of the group referred to themselves as Luddites, self-described followers of " Ned Ludd ", a legendary weaver whose name was used as a pseudonym in threatening letters to mill owners and government officials. The Luddite movement began in Nottingham, England , and spread to

108-596: A French port in order to ensure that there could be no trade with Britain. He also ordered all European nations and French allies to stop trading with Britain, and he threatened Russia with an invasion if they did not comply as well. His orders backfired in the Iberian Peninsula, especially in Portugal (being allied to Britain), setting off the Peninsular War. He pushed Russia too hard, both in terms of

162-454: A given sector, then the industry-wide cost of production falls, which lowers the competitive price and increases the equilibrium supply point that, theoretically, will require an increase in aggregate labour inputs. During the 20th century and the first decade of the 21st century, the dominant view among economists has been that belief in long-term technological unemployment was indeed a fallacy . More recently, there has been increased support for

216-680: A man named George Mellor, ambushed and assassinated mill owner William Horsfall of Ottiwells Mill in Marsden, West Yorkshire , at Crosland Moor in Huddersfield . Horsfall had remarked that he would "Ride up to his saddle in Luddite blood". Mellor fired the fatal shot to Horsfall's groin, and all four men were arrested. One of the men, Benjamin Walker, turned informant, and the other three were hanged. Lord Byron denounced what he considered to be

270-582: A recognized public body that already openly negotiated with masters through named representatives. In North West England , textile workers lacked these long-standing trade institutions and their letters composed an attempt to achieve recognition as a united body of tradespeople. As such, they were more likely to include petitions for governmental reforms, such as increased minimum wages and the cessation of child labor. Northwestern Luddites were also more likely to use radical language linking their movement to that of American and French revolutionaries. In Yorkshire ,

324-455: A rise in difficult working conditions in the new textile factories. Luddites objected primarily to the rising popularity of automated textile equipment, threatening the jobs and livelihoods of skilled workers as this technology allowed them to be replaced by cheaper and less skilled workers. The movement began in Arnold, Nottinghamshire , on 11 March 1811 and spread rapidly throughout England over

378-609: A tactic used in Britain since the Restoration because manufactories were scattered throughout the country, and that made it impractical to hold large-scale strikes. An agricultural variant of Luddism occurred during the widespread Swing Riots of 1830 in southern and eastern England, centring on breaking threshing machines . The Luddite movement emerged during the harsh economic climate of the Napoleonic Wars , which saw

432-636: A threat to the particular industrial interests in each region. In the Midlands, these were the "wide" knitting frames used to make cheap and inferior lace articles. In the North West, weavers sought to eliminate the steam-powered looms threatening wages in the cotton trade. In Yorkshire, workers opposed the use of shearing frames and gig mills to finish woolen cloth. Many Luddite groups were highly organized and pursued machine-breaking as one of several tools for achieving specific political ends. In addition to

486-467: Is "a leaderless movement of passive resistance to consumerism and the increasingly bizarre and frightening technologies of the Computer Age ". The term "Luddite fallacy" is used by economists about the fear that technological unemployment inevitably generates structural unemployment and is consequently macroeconomically injurious. If a technological innovation reduces necessary labour inputs in

540-472: Is no independent evidence of its veracity. John Blackner 's book History of Nottingham , also published in 1811, provides a variant tale, of a lad called "Ludlam" who was told by his father, a framework-knitter, to "square his needles". Ludlam took a hammer and "beat them into a heap". News of the incident spread, and whenever frames were sabotaged, people would jokingly say "Ned Ludd did it". By 1812, organised frame-breakers became known as Luddites , using

594-642: The Elbe , issued the Berlin Decree forbidding his allies and conquests from trading with the British. Britain responded with further orders in council issued on 10 January and 11 November 1807. These forbade French trade with Britain, its allies or neutrals, and instructed the Royal Navy to blockade all French and allied ports, and to prevent all shipping whether neutral or not. Napoleon responded again with

SECTION 10

#1732772861813

648-570: The French Empire , the newly acquired territories and client states were subordinate to France itself, as there was a unified market within France (no internal barriers or tariffs) while economic distortions were maintained on the borders of the new territories. The Berlin Decree forbade the import of British goods into any European country allied with or dependent upon France, and it installed

702-471: The Luddite movement. The episode seriously hurt France itself. Shipbuilding, and its trades such as rope-making, declined, as did many other industries that relied on overseas markets, such as the linen industries. With few exports and lost profits, many industries were closed down. Southern France, especially the port cities of Marseille and Bordeaux , as well as the city of La Rochelle , suffered from

756-621: The Milan Decree of 1807, declaring that all neutral shipping using British ports or paying British tariffs were to be regarded as British and seized. Napoleon's plan to defeat Britain was to destroy its ability to trade. As an island nation, trade was its most vital lifeline. Napoleon believed that if he could isolate Britain economically, he would be able to invade the nation after its economic collapse. Napoleon decreed that all commercial ships wishing to do business in Europe must first stop at

810-490: The North West and Yorkshire between 1811 and 1816. Mill and factory owners took to shooting protesters and eventually the movement was suppressed by legal and military force, which included execution and penal transportation of accused and convicted Luddites. Over time, the term has been used to refer to those opposed to the introduction of new technologies. The name Luddite ( / ˈ l ʌ d aɪ t / ) occurs in

864-664: The Pentrich Rising . While this was a general uprising unrelated to machinery, it can be viewed as the last major Luddite act. 12,000 government troops, most of them belonging to militia or yeomanry units, were involved in suppression of Luddite activity, which historian Eric Hobsbawm claimed was a larger number than the British army which the Duke of Wellington led during the Peninsular War . Four Luddites, led by

918-687: The Protection of Stocking Frames, etc. Act 1788 . Periodic uprisings relating to asset prices also occurred in other contexts in the century before Luddism. Irregular rises in food prices provoked the Keelmen to riot in the port of Tyne in 1710 and tin miners to steal from granaries at Falmouth in 1727. There was a rebellion in Northumberland and Durham in 1740, and an assault on Quaker corn dealers in 1756. Malcolm L. Thomas argued in his 1970 history The Luddites that machine-breaking

972-489: The Spanish War of Independence occurred simultaneously, and suffered severely in, and ultimately retreated from, Russia in 1812. The British government was the central force in encouraging and financing alliances against France. Napoleon was frustrated in his repeated attempts to defeat Britain. Attacks that involved naval power had all failed, with the systematic defeats of the combined French and Spanish navies. After

1026-704: The Third Coalition , refused to comply with French demands and was attacked by Russia in February and by Denmark-Norway in March 1808. At the same time, a French force threatened to invade southern Sweden, but the plan was stopped as the Royal Navy controlled the Danish straits . The Royal Navy set up a base outside the port of Gothenburg in 1808 to simplify operations into the Baltic Sea. The Baltic campaign

1080-507: The Continental System in Europe. All connections with Britain were to be cut, even mail. However, there was extensive smuggling, which made the Continental System an ineffective weapon of economic war. There was some damage to British trade, especially in 1808 and 1812, but British control of the oceans led to replacement trade with North and South America, as well as large scale smuggling in Europe particularly from Malta , which

1134-479: The Continental System, and in his demands for control over part of Poland . Napoleon's 1812 invasion of Russia was a disaster which set the stage for his downfall. The Continental System had mixed effects on British trade. The embargo encouraged British merchants to seek out new markets aggressively and to engage in smuggling with continental Europe. Napoleon's exclusively land-based customs enforcers could not stop British smugglers, especially as these operated with

SECTION 20

#1732772861813

1188-570: The Continental System, the orders in council threatened to respond with punitive measures. This double threat created a difficult time for neutral nations like the United States. In response to this prohibition, the U.S. government adopted the Embargo Act of 1807 and eventually Macon's Bill Number 2 . This embargo was designed as an economic counterattack to hurt Britain, but it proved even more damaging to American merchants. Together with

1242-719: The European nations under his control, causing inflation and great debt to undermine British strength. His position was strengthened by the Fall of Berlin in October 1806, bringing swathes of Prussia under his control. In November 1806, having recently conquered or allied with every major power on the European continent, Napoleon, in retaliation to the British Order in Council of 17 May 1806 blockading all ports from Brest to

1296-769: The Luddite movement with a mass trial at York in January 1813, following the attack on Cartwrights Mill at Rawfolds near Cleckheaton. The government charged over 60 men, including Mellor and his companions, with various crimes in connection with Luddite activities. While some of those charged were actual Luddites, many had no connection to the movement. Although the proceedings were legitimate jury trials, many were abandoned due to lack of evidence and 30 men were acquitted. These trials were certainly intended to act as show trials to deter other Luddites from continuing their activities. The harsh sentences of those found guilty, which included execution and penal transportation , quickly ended

1350-642: The Luddites followed from previous outbreaks of sabotage in the English textile industry, especially in the hosiery and woolen trades. Organized action by stockingers had occurred at various times since 1675. In Lancashire , new cotton spinning technologies were met with violent resistance in 1768 and 1779. These new inventions produced textiles faster and cheaper because they could be operated by less-skilled, low-wage labourers. These struggles sometimes resulted in government suppression, via Parliamentary acts such as

1404-566: The Luddites' alleged leader and founder. It has been claimed that the name "Ned Ludd" came from an "Edward Ludlam" who was buried at St Mary's Church, Anstey . Supposedly, Ludd was a weaver from Anstey , near Leicester , England. In 1779, after either being whipped for idleness or taunted by local youths, he smashed two knitting frames in what was described as a "fit of passion". This story can be traced to an article in The Nottingham Review on 20 December 1811, but there

1458-483: The connivance of Napoleon's chosen rulers of Spain, Westphalia , and other German states. British exports to the continent fell between 25% and 55% compared to pre-1806 levels. However, trade sharply increased with the rest of the world, covering much of the decline. In response to the Continental System, British orders in council prohibited other countries (that is, its trade partners) from trading with France. If they chose to trade with France or otherwise comply with

1512-459: The country's total trade dropped from 55% to 25% between 1802 and 1806. However, the British economy suffered greatly from 1810 to 1812, especially in terms of high unemployment and inflation. This led to widespread protest and violence, but the middle classes and upper classes strongly supported the government, which used the Yeomanry and militia to suppress the working class unrest, especially

1566-986: The croppers of Yorkshire, who used a power hammer dubbed "Enoch" to break the frames of the cropping machines. They called it Enoch to mock Enoch Taylor, and when they broke the frames they purportedly shouted "Enoch made them, and Enoch shall break them." Luddites clashed with government troops at Burton's Mill in Middleton and at Westhoughton Mill , both in Lancashire. The Luddites and their supporters anonymously sent death threats to, and possibly attacked, magistrates and food merchants. Activists smashed Heathcote's lace making machine in Loughborough in 1816. He and other industrialists had secret chambers constructed in their buildings that could be used as hiding places during an attack. In 1817 Jeremiah Brandreth , an unemployed Nottingham stockinger and probable ex-Luddite, led

1620-476: The decisive defeat at Trafalgar , Napoleon made no attempt to rebuild his navy. He turned instead to economic warfare, planning to ruin the British economy. It was thought that Britain depended completely upon trade with Europe for its prosperity, so cutting off trade with continental Europe would ruin the British economy and force it to sue for peace. A blockade was impossible because the Royal Navy controlled

1674-409: The following two years. The British economy suffered greatly in 1810 to 1812, especially in terms of high unemployment and inflation. The causes included the high cost of the wars with Napoleon, Napoleon's Continental System of economic warfare, and escalating conflict with the United States. The crisis led to widespread protest and violence, but the middle classes and upper classes strongly supported

Luddite - Misplaced Pages Continue

1728-544: The goods were smuggled to the many ports around the Baltic Sea. To further support the convoys, the small Danish island of Anholt was occupied in May 1809. A lighthouse on the island simplified navigation through the Danish straits. Russia also chafed under the embargo, and in 1810 reopened trade with Britain. Russia's withdrawal from the system was a motivating factor behind Napoleon's decision to invade Russia in 1812, which proved

1782-628: The government, which used the army to suppress all working-class unrest, especially the Luddite movement. The Luddites met at night on the moors surrounding industrial towns to practice military-like drills and manoeuvres. Their main areas of operation began in Nottinghamshire in November 1811, followed by the West Riding of Yorkshire in early 1812, and then Lancashire by March 1813. They wrecked specific types of machinery that posed

1836-510: The introduction of cropping machinery, and thus had more to lose and more reason to rebel against the factory owners' use of machinery. Another traditional song which celebrates the Luddites is the song "The Triumph of General Ludd," which was recorded by Chumbawamba for their 1988 album English Rebel Songs . In the 19th century, occupations that arose from the growth of trade and shipping in ports, also as "domestic" manufacturers, were notorious for precarious employment prospects. Underemployment

1890-459: The issues of the impressment of American seamen, and British support for Indian resistance in U.S. colonization, tensions led to a declaration of war by the U.S. in the War of 1812 . This war, not Napoleon's blockade, sharply reduced British trade with the United States. The blockade did not cause significant economic damage to the British, although British exports to the continent as a proportion of

1944-516: The lack of competition from British goods (particularly textiles, which were produced much more cheaply in Britain). In Italy, the agricultural sector flourished; but the Dutch economy, predicated on trade, suffered greatly as a result of the embargo. Napoleon's economic warfare was much to the chagrin of his own brother, King Louis I of Holland . Britain's first response to the Continental System

1998-408: The letter-writing campaign shifted to more violent threats against local authorities viewed as complicit in the use of offensive machinery to exert greater commercial control over the labor market. In Yorkshire , the croppers (who were highly skilled and highly paid) faced mass unemployment due to the introduction of cropping machines by Enoch Taylor of Marsden. This sparked the Luddite movement among

2052-536: The movement's writings as early as 1811. The movement utilised the eponym of Ned Ludd , an apocryphal apprentice who allegedly smashed two stocking frames in 1779 after being criticized and instructed to change his method. The name often appears as captain, General, or King Ludd. Different versions of the legends place his residence in Anstey , near Leicester, or Sherwood Forest like Robin Hood . The machine-breaking of

2106-753: The movement. Parliament made "machine breaking" (i.e. industrial sabotage ) a capital crime with the Frame Breaking Act of 1812. Lord Byron opposed this legislation, becoming one of the few prominent defenders of the Luddites after the treatment of the defendants at the York trials. The Luddites (specifically the croppers, those who operated cropping machinery) are memorialized in the Yorkshire -area folk song "The Cropper Lads," which has been recorded by artists such as Lou Killen and Maddy Prior . The croppers were very highly skilled and highly paid before

2160-531: The name King Ludd or Captain Ludd for their mythical leader. Letters and proclamations were signed by "Ned Ludd". They said Ned Ludd was an idiot boy That all he could do was wreck and destroy, and He turned to his workmates and said: Death to Machines They tread on our future and they stamp on our dreams. Continental System Aside from subduing Britain, the blockade was also intended to establish French industrial and commercial hegemony in Europe. Within

2214-463: The plight of the working class, the government's inane policies and ruthless repression in the House of Lords on 27 February 1812: "I have been in some of the most oppressed provinces of Turkey; but never, under the most despotic of infidel governments, did I behold such squalid wretchedness as I have seen since my return, in the very heart of a Christian country". Government officials sought to suppress

Luddite - Misplaced Pages Continue

2268-456: The raids, Luddites coordinated public demonstrations and the mailing of letters to local industrialists and government officials. These letters explained their reasons for destroying the machinery and threatened further action if the use of "obnoxious" machines continued. The writings of Midlands Luddites often justified their demands through the legitimacy of the Company of Framework Knitters,

2322-672: The reduction in trade. Moreover, the prices of staple foods rose in most of continental Europe. Napoleon's St. Cloud Decree in July 1810 opened the southwest of France and the Spanish frontier to limited British trade, and reopened French trade to the United States. It was an admission that his blockade had hurt his own economy more than the British. It had also failed to reduce British financial support for its allies. The industrialised north and east of France, and Wallonia (the south of present-day Belgium) saw significantly increased profits due to

2376-590: The sea lanes in the North Sea and Baltic Sea for the British merchant fleet. The island of Heligoland off the west coast of Denmark was occupied in September 1807. This base made it easier for Britain to control trade to North Sea ports and to facilitate smuggling. The attacks against Copenhagen and Heligoland started the Gunboat War against Denmark, which lasted until 1814. Sweden, Britain's ally in

2430-557: The seas, but if Napoleon controlled the ports of Europe, he could prevent British products from landing. On 16 May 1806, the Royal Navy imposed a naval blockade of the French and French-allied coasts. In turn, Napoleon resorted to economic warfare. Britain was Europe's manufacturing and business center as a result of the Industrial Revolution . Napoleon believed it would be easy to take advantage of an embargo on trade with

2484-539: The term "Luddite" often is used to describe someone who is opposed or resistant to new technologies. In 1956, during a British Parliamentary debate, a Labour spokesman said that "organised workers were by no means wedded to a 'Luddite Philosophy'." By 2006, the term neo-Luddism had emerged to describe opposition to many forms of technology. According to a manifesto drawn up by the Second Luddite Congress (April 1996; Barnesville, Ohio ), neo-Luddism

2538-539: The turning point of the war and his regime. Portugal openly refused to join the Continental System. In 1793, Portugal signed a treaty of mutual assistance with Britain. After the Treaty of Tilsit in July 1807, Napoleon attempted to capture the Portuguese fleet and the House of Braganza , and to occupy the Portuguese ports. He failed, as Prince-regent John VI , acting for his mother, Queen Maria I of Portugal , took

2592-522: The view that the benefits of automation are not equally distributed. Ned Ludd Ned Ludd ( / n ɛ d l ʌ d / ) is the legendary person to whom the Luddites attributed the name of their movement. In 1779, Ludd is supposed to have broken two stocking frames in a fit of rage. When the "Luddites" emerged in the 1810s, his identity was appropriated to become the folkloric character of Captain Ludd, also known as King Lud or General Ludd,

2646-408: Was chronic during this period, and it was common practice to retain a larger workforce than was typically necessary for insurance against labour shortages in boom times. Moreover, the organization of manufacture by merchant capitalists in the textile industry was inherently unstable. While the financiers' capital was still largely invested in raw materials, it was easy to increase commitment when trade

2700-422: Was good and almost as easy to cut back when times were bad. Merchant capitalists lacked the incentive of later factory owners, whose capital was invested in buildings and plants, to maintain a steady rate of production and return on fixed capital. The combination of seasonal variations in wage rates and violent short-term fluctuations springing from harvests and war produced periodic outbreaks of violence. Nowadays,

2754-452: Was one of the very few tactics that workers could use to increase pressure on employers, undermine lower-paid competing workers, and create solidarity among workers. "These attacks on machines did not imply any necessary hostility to machinery as such; machinery was just a conveniently exposed target against which an attack could be made." Historian Eric Hobsbawm has called their machine wrecking " collective bargaining by riot", which had been

SECTION 50

#1732772861813

2808-595: Was to launch a major naval attack on the weakest link in Napoleon's coalition, Denmark . Although ostensibly neutral, Denmark was under heavy French and Russian pressure to pledge its fleet to Napoleon. London could not take the chance of ignoring the Danish threat. In the Second Battle of Copenhagen in August–September 1807, the Royal Navy bombarded Copenhagen , seized the Danish fleet, and assured control of

2862-421: Was under the command of Vice-admiral James Saumarez . In November 1810 France demanded that Sweden should declare war upon Britain and stop all trade. The result was a phony war between Sweden and Britain . A second navy base was set up on the island of Hanö in the south of Sweden in 1810. These two bases were used to support convoys from Britain to Gothenburg, then through the Danish straits to Hanö. From Hanö

2916-493: Was used by the British to sell their goods to southern Italy . The loss of Britain as a trading partner also hit the economies of France and its allies. Angry governments gained an incentive to ignore the Continental System, which led to the weakening of Napoleon's coalition. As Napoleon realised that extensive trade was going through Spain and Russia , he invaded those two countries. His forces were tied down in Spain, in which

#812187