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105-611: The original MMPI was developed by Starke R. Hathaway and J. C. McKinley , faculty of the University of Minnesota , and first published by the University of Minnesota Press in 1943. It was replaced by an updated version, the MMPI-2, in 1989 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, and Kaemmer). An alternative version of the test, the MMPI-2 Restructured Form ( MMPI-2-RF ), published in 2008, retains some aspects of

210-419: A double-blind study , in which some subjects are given an ineffective treatment (in medical studies typically a sugar pill ) to minimize differences in the experiences of subjects in the different groups; this is done in a way that ensures no participant in the experiment (subject or experimenter) knows to which group each subject belongs. In such cases, a third, non-treatment control group can be used to measure

315-499: A "lie detector" and built and sold 30 devices to other psychology departments. He was henceforth noted nationwide as the inventor of a lie-detector machine and it was used to solve a murder case in Athens, Ohio . Physiological psychology is not a separate science but is, as the name implies, a link between two basically similar sciences, physiology and psychology. Its content and definitions are determined by its raison d'etre; namely, by

420-446: A brash one; white duck trousers made greasy from crawling under a car just before the lecture; incisive cuts through words to the essence of things. If psychology has some kind of soul, Starke Hathaway is surely part of it. With the collaboration of J. C. McKinley, Hathaway brought a desperately needed personality assessment that provided and objective portrayal of clinical symptoms and problems. Through their method of "blind empiricism",

525-569: A broad overview of psychological problems (e.g., low positive emotions or symptoms of depression; antisocial behavior; bizarre thoughts), the SP scales offered narrow, focused descriptions of the problems the individual reported he or she was experiencing. The MMPI-2-RF SP Scales were used as a template. First, corresponding items from the MMPI-2-RF were identified in the MMPI-A, and then 58 items unique to

630-429: A common population to one of the treatment and control groups. In studies of twins involving just one treatment group and a control group, it is statistically efficient to do this random assignment separately for each pair of twins, so that one is in the treatment group and one in the control group. In some medical studies, where it may be unethical not to treat patients who present with symptoms, controls may be given

735-548: A concentration in physiology , and his dissertation was titled, "An Action Potential Study of Neuromuscular Relations during the Simple Reaction". Hathaway stayed as an associate professor in psychology at the UMN Hospital, with a joint appointment in the department of anatomy. His chief responsibility during this appointment was to establish a division of clinical psychology in the department of psychiatry at

840-436: A graduate student in 1929, "A Comparative Study of Psychogalvanic and Association Time Measures: A New Psychogalvanic Apparatus", demonstrated his ability to conceptualize psychological and mental processes and to use biological and engineering methods to quantify them. This apparatus was used to measure galvanic skin response in a reliable manner, both at rest and during emotionally salient conditions. He patented this device as

945-506: A number of the items were deemed outdated or offensive because of sexual or religious content, its terminology not being relevant to the population it was supposed to measure, and it became necessary for the MMPI to measure a more diverse number of potential mental health problems, such as "suicidal tendencies, drug abuse, and treatment-related behaviors." With graduate student Paul Meehl , Hathaway developed three validity scales embedded within

1050-461: A psychologist. A year later, in 1928, he obtained his master's degree in psychology. After graduation, Hathaway served as a research assistant in engineering with Harry Johnson at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh. Here, he developed an automatic camera that enabled researchers to record participants' movements while they slept. This invention is one of the contributions acknowledged by

1155-684: A separate scale ( demoralization ). The RC scales measure the core constructs of the original clinical scales. Critics of the RC scales assert they have deviated too far from the original clinical scales, the implication being that previous research done on the clinical scales will not be relevant to the interpretation of the RC scales. However, researchers on the RC scales assert that the RC scales predict pathology in their designated areas better than their concordant original clinical scales while using significantly fewer items and maintaining equal to higher internal consistency, reliability and validity; further, unlike

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1260-415: A specific population and believed that the MMPI norms should be the same for the varying groups that take it, from the elderly, adolescent, or international and cross-cultural population. Although Hathaway was not the first psychologist to address the impact of response bias on the quality of data obtained, his work with Paul Meehl on the development of the L, F, and K scales represented a major contribution to

1365-403: A standard treatment, rather than no treatment at all. An alternative is to select controls from a wider population, provided that this population is well-defined and that those presenting with symptoms at the clinic are representative of those in the wider population. Another method to reduce ethical concerns would be to test early-onset symptoms, with enough time later to offer real treatments to

1470-455: A theoretical perspective, the MMPI-2-RF scales rest on an assumption that psychopathology is a homogeneous condition that is additive. Advances in psychometric theory, test development methods, and statistical analyses used to develop the MMPI-2-RF were not available when the MMPI was developed. The MMPI-3 was released in December 2020. Its primary goals were to enhance the item pool, update

1575-792: Is a broad-band instrument used to psychologically evaluate adolescents. It was published in 2016 and was primarily authored by Robert P. Archer, Richard W. Handel, Yossef S. Ben-Porath, and Auke Tellegen. It is a revised version of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory – Adolescent (MMPI-A). Like the MMPI-A, this version is intended for use with adolescents aged 14–18 years old. It consists of 241 true-false items which produce scores on 48 scales: 6 Validity scales (VRIN-r, TRIN-r, CRIN, F-r, L-r, K-r), 3 Higher-Order scales (EID, THD, BXD), 9 Restructured Clinical scales (RCd, RC1, RC2, RC3, RC4, RC6, RC7, RC8, RC9), 25 Specific Problem scales, and revised versions of

1680-446: Is a kaleidoscopic glitter of images and memories, all unforgettable: his eyes, kindly and penetrating; the unsettling frequency of his mind-reading in clinical settings; his absent-minded combing of a brain model as he paced and lectured in physiological psychology, with a scrap of comb rescued from the floor; unmatched shoes cocked uncomfortably on a VA desk-top; his quiet encouragement of an uncertain student, and his skillful reshaping of

1785-501: Is also a short form of 350 items, which covers the basic scales (validity and clinical scales). The validity, clinical, content, and supplementary scales of the MMPI-A have demonstrated adequate to strong test-retest reliability , internal consistency, and validity. A four factor model (similar to all of the MMPI instruments) was chosen for the MMPI-A and included The MMPI-A normative and clinical samples included 805 males and 815 females, ages 14 to 18, recruited from eight schools across

1890-408: Is essential to their understanding. His childhood interests continued into the development of his notable career, as much of what he had initially accomplished during these early years was engineering and mechanically focused. Hathaway was credited with designing an ideal psychiatric facility and building amplification equipment to measure neuromuscular potentials for research conducted at the hospital,

1995-409: Is near agreement that the notion of more psychopathology in racial ethnic minority groups is simplistic and untenable. Nevertheless, three divergent explanations of racial differences on the MMPI have been suggested. Black-white MMPI differences reflect variations in values, conceptions, and expectations that result from growing up in different cultures. Another point of view maintains that differences on

2100-677: Is one of the most commonly used instruments among adolescent populations. A restructured form of the MMPI-A, the MMPI-A-RF was published in 2016. The University of Minnesota Press published a new version of the MMPI-2, the MMPI-2 Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF), in 2008. The MMPI-2-RF builds on the Restructured Clinical (RC) scales developed in 2003, and subsequently subjected to extensive research, with an overriding goal of improved discriminant validity , or

2205-483: The National Autonomous University during his annual trips to Mexico. Although he did not view himself as a promoter of the MMPI and did not accept invitations to conduct workshops or hold lectures, he was much more interested in extending the use of the instrument to other cultures and making it available in other languages. He collaborated with and provided consultation on the translation of

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2310-579: The central nervous system and functional subsystems and psychological and behavioral consequences of injury and disease. Later in his career, Hathaway moved beyond his original interest in psychophysiology and diagnosis and became interested in psychotherapy . He avoided theories and orientations that dictated universal treatment strategies and instead favored models that were designed to fit particular cases and clients. Took an empirical approach to cognitive/medical psychology regarding therapy, rather than imposing his own biases or preconceptions on data, let

2415-522: The placebo effect directly, as the difference between the responses of placebo subjects and untreated subjects, perhaps paired by age group or other factors (such as being twins). For the conclusions drawn from the results of an experiment to have validity , it is essential that the items or patients assigned to treatment and control groups be representative of the same population . In some experiments, such as many in agriculture or psychology, this can be achieved by randomly assigning items from

2520-488: The psychogalvanometer . I tried always to teach that agnosticism towards systems is a sophisticated orientation and it can afford a secure structure in which one can use pragmatically the methods and theories available. Hathaway was avidly interested in other languages and international collaboration. He had a working knowledge of French and German, and facile in Spanish. He often lectured or led discussions in Spanish at

2625-683: The 478-item length of the MMPI-A was identified as a challenge to adolescent attention span and concentration. To address this, the MMPI-A-RF has less than half the items of the MMPI-A. Higher-Order (H-O) Scales were introduced with the MMPI-2-RF and they are identical in the MMPI-A-RF and the MMPI-3. Their function is to assess problems of three general areas of functioning: affective, cognitive (thought) and behavioral. The MMPI-2-RF includes two Interest Scales. The Aesthetic-Literary Interests (AES) scale rates interest in literature, music, theatre, and

2730-826: The American Psychological Associations in awarding him the APA Distinguished Scientific Award for the Applications of Psychology in 1977. In 1932, Hathaway took a position as a lecturer while also pursuing his PhD in psychology from the University of Minnesota under the mentorship of Richard M. Elliott . During his time there, he was also influenced by outstanding psychologists via stimulating debates about psychological matters and approaches, such as Karl Lashley , B. F. Skinner , Edna Heidbreder , and Donald G. Paterson . He received his PhD in psychology, with

2835-466: The FBS acronym remains in use, the official name for the scale changed to Symptom Validity Scale when it was incorporated into the standard scoring reports produced by Pearson, the licensed publisher. Some psychologists question the validity and utility of the FBS scale. The peer-reviewed journal Psychological Injury and Law published a series of pro and con articles in 2008, 2009, and 2010. Investigations of

2940-520: The MMPI between blacks and whites are not a reflection of racial differences, but rather a reflection of overriding socioeconomic variations between racial groups. Thirdly, MMPI scales may reflect socioeconomic factors, while other scales are primarily race-related." The MMPI-2 is currently available in 27 different languages, including: The Chinese MMPI-2 was developed by Fanny M. Cheung , Weizhen Song, and Jianxin Zhang for Hong Kong and adapted for use in

3045-504: The MMPI has upheld the test of time and application. One of the more distinguishing features of Hathaway and McKinley's questionnaire was the use of a large "normal" population to serve as a reference group against which clinical samples could be compared to develop scales that would empirically differentiate clinical groups. Hathaway was an avid believer in test norms and standard units of measurement for assessing clinical dimensions. He insisted that one should not develop norms to be used for

3150-757: The MMPI into Spanish, published in Mexico in 1967, and used in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Mexico. In 1937, Hathaway was awarded tenure as a member of the faculty of the medical school, working closely with the medical staff. Through this appointment, Hathaway began working closely with J. C. McKinley , with whom he later created the MMPI . He collaborated often with E. D. Monachesi and Whit Longstaff. Further, throughout his time at UMN, Hathaway trained several influential graduate students, including Paul E. Meehl , Harrison G. Gough , W. Grant Dahlstrom , and Howard Hunt. In 1963, he

3255-473: The MMPI is tightly controlled. Any clinician using the MMPI is required to meet specific test publisher requirements in terms of training and experience, must pay for all administration materials including the annual computer scoring license and is charged for each report generated by computer. In 2018, the University of Minnesota Press commissioned development of the MMPI-3, which was to be based in part on

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3360-453: The MMPI that differed from the general population serve as identifiers of traits and clinical symptoms as well as predictors of behavior. Stemming from this empirical orientation, Hathaway and colleagues cataloged cases in reference guides known as "atlases" to guide practitioners in determining the meaning of particular scale elevations or profile patterns. Hathaway's empirical orientation and his desire to apply rigorous objective methods to

3465-577: The MMPI was published, research began to be conducted on its use with adolescents, and in the mid-50s Hathaway and Monachesi, intending to expand use of the test by employing it to predict delinquency among adolescents, conducted a series of longitudinal studies and reported their findings in a book, organizing coded profiles for juveniles based on adult atlas of profiles Consistent with his life-long interests and background, Hathaway's early work focused on developing mechanical and electrical devices to measure psychological processes. His first publication as

3570-508: The MMPI was the MMPI-2, which was standardized on a new national sample of adults in the United States and released in 1989. The new standardization was based on 2,600 individuals from a more representative background than the MMPI. It is appropriate for use with adults 18 and over. Subsequent revisions of certain test elements have been published, and a wide variety of sub scales were introduced over many years to help clinicians interpret

3675-597: The MMPI-2 PSY-5 scales showed moderate internal consistency and intercorrelations comparable with the domain scales on the NEO-PI-R Big Five personality measure. Also, scores on the MMPI-2 PSY-5 scales appear to be similar across genders, and the structure of the PSY-5 has been reproduced in a Dutch psychiatric sample. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory – Adolescent – Restructured Form (MMPI-A-RF)

3780-467: The MMPI-2's Psychopathic Deviate scale is considered one of the traditional personality tests that contain subscales relating to psychopathy, though they assess relatively non-specific tendencies towards antisocial or criminal behavior. The clinical scales are heterogeneous for their item content. To assist clinicians in interpreting the scales, researchers have developed subscales of more homogeneous items within each scale. The Harris–Lingoes (1955) scales

3885-482: The MMPI-2-RF and include updated normative data. It was published in December 2020. The original MMPI was developed on a scale-by-scale basis in the late 1930s and early 1940s. Hathaway and McKinley used an empirical [criterion] keying approach, with clinical scales derived by selecting items that were endorsed by patients known to have been diagnosed with certain pathologies . The difference between this approach and other test development strategies used around that time

3990-519: The MMPI-2-RF argue that this potential problem is addressed by being able to view elevations on other RC scales that are less saturated with the general factor and, therefore, are also more transparent and much easier to interpret. The validity scales in all versions of the MMPI-2 (MMPI-2 and RF) contain three basic types of validity measures: those that were designed to detect non-responding or inconsistent responding (CNS, VRIN, TRIN), those designed to detect when clients are over reporting or exaggerating

4095-533: The MMPI-2-RF computer scoring offers an option for the administrator to select a specific reference group with which to contrast and compare an individual's obtained scores; comparison groups include clinical, non-clinical, medical, forensic, and pre-employment settings, to name a few. The newest version of the Pearson Q-Local computer scoring program offers the option of converting MMPI-2 data into MMPI-2-RF reports as well as numerous other new features. Use of

4200-450: The MMPI-2. Some concerns related to use of the MMPI with youth included inadequate item content, lack of appropriate norms , and problems with extreme reporting. For example, many items were written from an adult perspective, and did not cover content critical to adolescents (e.g., peers, school). Likewise, adolescent norms were not published until the 1970s, and there was not consensus on whether adult or adolescent norms should be used when

4305-502: The MMPI-A PSY-5 scales (AGGR-r, PSYC-r, DISC-r, NEGE-r, INTR-r). It also features 14 critical items, including 7 regarding depressing and suicidal ideation. The MMPI-A-RF was designed to address limitations of its predecessor, such as the scale heterogeneity and item overlap of the original clinical scales. The weaknesses of the clinical scales resulted in intercorrelations of several MMPI-A scales and limited discriminant validity of

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4410-417: The MMPI-A include the use of adolescent norms, appropriate and relevant item content, inclusion of a shortened version, a clear and comprehensive manual, and strong evidence of validity. Critiques of the MMPI-A include a non-representative clinical norms sample, overlap in what the clinical scales measure, irrelevance of the mf scale, as well as long length and high reading level of the instrument. The MMPI-A

4515-666: The MMPI-A were added to the item pool. This way, the MMPI-A-RF SP scales could maintain continuity with the MMPI-2-RF but in addition address issues specific to adolescent problems. After a preliminary set of SP scales were developed based on their content, each scale went through statistical tests (factor analysis) to ensure they did not overlap or relate too strongly to the RC demoralization scale. Additional statistical analyses were put in place to make sure each SP scale contained items that were strongly related (correlated) with its scale and less strongly associated with other scales; in

4620-494: The MMPI-A, was released in 1992. The youth version was developed to improve measurement of personality, behavior difficulties, and psychopathology among adolescents. It addressed limitations of using the original MMPI among adolescent populations. Twelve- to thirteen-year-old children were assessed and could not adequately understand the question content so the MMPI-A is not meant for children younger than 14. People who are 18 and no longer in high school may appropriately be tested with

4725-678: The MMPI-A-RF: Obsessions/Compulsions (OCS), Antisocial Attitudes (ASA), Conduct Problems (CNP), Negative Peer Influence (NPI), and Specific Fears (SPF). The SP scales were organized into four groupings: Somatic/Cognitive, Internalizing, Externalizing, and Interpersonal Scales. The Somatic/Cognitive scales (MLS, GIC, HPC, NUC, and COG) share their names with the SP scales on the MMPI-2-RF, are related to RC1, and focus on aspects of physical health and functioning. There are nine Internalizing scales. The first three (HLP, SFD, and NFC) are related to aspects of demoralization, or

4830-677: The MMPI-A. The MMPI-A has 478 items. It includes the original 10 clinical scales (Hs, D, Hy, Pd, Mf, Pa, Pt, Sc, Ma, Si), six validity scales (?, L, F, F1, F2, K, VRIN, TRIN), 31 Harris Lingoes subscales, 15 content component scales (A-anx, A-obs, A-dep, A-hea, A-ain, A-biz, A-ang, A-cyn, A-con, A-lse, A-las, A-sod, A-fam, A-sch, A-trt), the Personality Psychopathology Five (PSY-5) scales (AGGR, PSYC, DISC, NEGE, INTR), three social introversion subscales (Shyness/Self-Consciousness, Social Avoidance, Alienation), and six supplementary scales (A, R, MAC-R, ACK, PRO, IMM). There

4935-497: The MMPI: the L, or lie, scale indicates when a client is "faking good"; the F, or infrequency, scale indicates when a client is "faking bad"; the K, defensiveness scale identifies individuals in denial about their behaviors and symptoms. The initial scales included: hypochondriasis (Hp), depression (D), hysteria (Hy), psychopathic deviate (Pd), paranoia (Pa), psychasthenia (Ps), schizophrenia (Sc), mania (Ma). Shortly after

5040-482: The Psychopathic Deviate subscale. The 50 statements must be answered in true or false format as applied to one's self. The Psychopathic Deviate scale measures general social maladjustment and the absence of strongly pleasant experiences. The items on this scale tap into complaints about family and authority figures in general, self-alienation, social alienation and boredom. When diagnosing psychopathy,

5145-579: The S or F B scales, and the F-r scale now covers the entirety of the test. Although elevations on the clinical scales are significant indicators of certain psychological conditions, it is difficult to determine exactly what specific behaviors the high scores are related to. The content scales of the MMPI-2 were developed for the purpose of increasing the incremental validity of the clinical scales. The content scales contain items intended to provide insight into specific types of symptoms and areas of functioning that

5250-544: The UMN Medical School. The concurrent training of psychologists and psychiatrists was with little conflict as Hathaway's approach incorporated rigorous quantification to mental health based on empirical principles. He believed that psychological qualities could be engineered and influenced in the same was physical matter could be. Further, Hathaway adamantly argued that biological processes underlie psychological phenomena and that anatomical and physiological education

5355-468: The United States and 420 males and 293 females ages 14 to 18 recruited from treatment facilities in Minneapolis and Minnesota , respectively. Norms were prepared by standardizing raw scores using a uniform t-score transformation, which was developed by Auke Tellegen and adopted for the MMPI-2. This technique preserves the positive skew of scores but also allows percentile comparison. Strengths of

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5460-407: The United States, yet there was little unity between both clinical fields and with psychology. Following WWI , numerous personality assessments were published, including the MMPI. However, many of these assessments that claimed to detect clinical problems or serve as aids in psychiatric diagnoses had not been validated against external criteria. Conversely, the MMPI remedied those deficits and provided

5565-487: The ability of the test to reliably differentiate between clinical syndromes or diagnoses. Most of the MMPI and MMPI-2 Clinical Scales are relatively heterogeneous, i.e., they measure diverse groupings of signs and symptoms, such that an elevation on Scale 2 (Depression), for example, may or may not indicate a depressive disorder. The MMPI-2-RF scales, on the other hand, are fairly homogeneous; are designed to more precisely measure distinct symptom constellations or disorders. From

5670-606: The clinical scales do not measure, and are supposed to be used in addition to the clinical scales to interpret profiles. They were developed by Butcher, Graham, Williams and Ben-Porath using similar rational and statistical procedures as Wiggins who developed the original MMPI content scales. The items on the content scales contain obvious content and therefore are susceptible to response bias – exaggeration or denial of symptoms, and should be interpreted with caution. T scores greater than 65 on any content scale are considered high scores. The MMPI-2 and MMPI-A included subscales for some of

5775-441: The content scales to further specify the results. For example, Depression (DEP) was broken down into Lack of drive (DEP 1 ) , Dysphoria (DEP 2 ) , Self-depreciation (DEP 3 ) and Suicidal ideation (DEP 4 ) . To supplement these multidimensional scales and to assist in interpreting the frequently seen diffuse elevations due to the general factor (removed in the RC scales), the supplemental scales were also developed, with

5880-516: The control subjects, and let those subjects know the first treatments are "experimental" and might not be as effective as later treatments, again with the understanding there would be ample time to try other remedies. A clinical control group can be a placebo arm or it can involve an old method used to address a clinical outcome when testing a new idea. For example in a study released by the British Medical Journal, in 1995 studying

5985-520: The data speak for themselves. He referred to his methods as pragmatical or "redirective psychotherapy" and described them as resembling Albert Elis rational emotive behavior therapy . He was a master clinician, with great sensitivity to the problems of others and skill at helping others see their problems clearly. His pragmatic orientation well-suited him to helping patients with psychological disorders, particularly those with chronic, long-term problems who were often referred to him by other clinicians. He

6090-411: The effects of strict blood pressure control versus more relaxed blood pressure control in diabetic patients, the clinical control group was the diabetic patients that did not receive tight blood pressure control. In order to qualify for the study, the patients had to meet the inclusion criteria and not match the exclusion criteria. Once the study population was determined, the patients were placed in either

6195-478: The end, each item appeared on only one SP scale. These scales were developed to provide additional information in association with the RC scales, but SP scales are not subscales and can be interpreted even when the related RC scale is not elevated. As noted above, 25 SP scales were developed. Of these, 19 have the same names as the corresponding MMPI-2-RF SP scales, although the specific items that construct SP scales vary per form. The following 5 scales were unique to

6300-584: The era. Code types are a combination of the two or three (and, according to a few authors, even four) highest-scoring clinical scales (e.g. 4, 8, 6 = 486). Code types are interpreted as a single, wider ranged elevation, rather than interpreting each scale individually. For profiles without defined code types, interpretation should focus on the individual scales. This scale comes from the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2), where 50 statements compose

6405-413: The experimental group (strict blood pressure control <150/80mmHg) versus non strict blood pressure control (<180/110). There were a wide variety of ending points for patients such as death, myocardial infarction, stroke, etc. The study was stopped before completion because strict blood pressure control was so much superior to the clinical control group which had relaxed blood pressure control. The study

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6510-442: The fact is that you remain psychologists' greatest contribution to the psychiatric process. Not only did Hathaway provide this rigorous empiricism to his development of psychological and physiological instruments, but also to the conceptualization of clinical cases. Rather than imposing his own biases or preconceptions on the data, Hathaway chose to let the data speak for themselves. Specifically, he let patterns, or profile types, of

6615-534: The factor structure of the Symptom Validity Scale (FBS and FBS-r) raise doubts about the scale's construct and predictive validity in the detection of malingering . One of the biggest criticisms of the original MMPI has been the difference between whites and non-whites. In the 1970s, Charles McCreary and Eligio Padilla from UCLA compared scores of black, white and Mexican-American men and found that non-whites tended to score five points higher on

6720-402: The full version to be completed (e.g., illness or time pressure), but the scores available on the shorter version are not as extensive as those available in the 567-item version. The original form of the MMPI-2 is the third most frequently utilized test in the field of psychology, behind the most used IQ and achievement tests . A version of the test designed for adolescents ages 14 to 18,

6825-567: The general sense of unhappiness, and the remaining scales (OCS, STW, AXY, ANP, BRF, SPF) assess for Dysfunctional Negative Emotions (e.g., a tendency toward worry, fearfulness, and anxiety). Six Externalizing scales (NSA, ASA, CNP, SUB, NPI, and AGG) are related to antisocial behavior, and the need for excitement and stimulating activity (i.e., hypomanic activation). Finally, Interpersonal scales (FML, IPP, SAV, SHY, and DSF), while not related to particular RC scales, focus on aspects of social and relational functioning with family and peers. Additionally,

6930-399: The instrument was administered to youth. Finally, the use of adult norms tended to overpathologize adolescents, who demonstrated elevations on most original MMPI scales (e.g., T scores greater than 70 on the F validity scale; marked elevations on clinical scales 8 and 9). Therefore, an adolescent version was developed and tested during the restandardization process of the MMPI, which resulted in

7035-509: The likewise, and the Mechanical-Physical Interests (MEC) scale measures interest in construction and repair, and general interest in the outdoors and sports. Like many standardized tests, scores on the various scales of the MMPI-2 and the MMPI-2-RF are not representative of either percentile rank or how "well" or "poorly" someone has done on the test. Rather, analysis looks at relative elevation of factors compared to

7140-479: The mainland. The Chinese MMPI was used as a base instrument from which some items, that were the same in the MMPI-2, were retained. New items on the Chinese MMPI-2 underwent translation from English to Chinese and then back translation from Chinese to English to establish uniformity of the items and their content. The psychometrics are robust with the Chinese MMPI-2 having high reliability (a measure of whether

7245-423: The measure have been made over time to improve interpretability of the original clinical scales. Additionally, there have been changes in the number of items in the measure, and other adjustments which reflect its current use as a tool towards modern psychopathy and personality disorders . The most historically significant developmental changes include: The MMPI-2-RF is a streamlined measure. Retaining only 338 of

7350-435: The more frequently used being the substance abuse scales (MAC-R, APS, AAS), designed to assess the extent to which a client admits to or is prone to abusing substances , and the A (anxiety) and R (repression) scales, developed by Welsh after conducting a factor analysis of the original MMPI item pool. The PSY-5 is set of scales measuring dimensional traits of personality disorders, originally developed from factor analysis of

7455-422: The most widely used objective measure of personality and psychopathology, and the subject of both basic and applied research. In addition to extensive use in clinics and hospitals, the test was being administered to patients in general medical settings, to inmates in correctional facilities, to military personnel, and to candidates for positions involving high stress and responsibility for public safety. Furthermore,

7560-455: The need felt by psychologists working in the fields of general, clinical, and animal psychology for an enriched vocabulary and for a simplified by fundamentally workable grounding in the allied biological sciences. In the early 1940s, Starke Hathaway authored two textbooks, An Outline of Neuropsychiatry (1940), which served as an indexed resource for diagnosis of nervous and mental diseases, and Physiological Psychology (1942), which summarized

7665-411: The older clinical scales due to a general factor common to psychopathology, through use of sophisticated psychometric methods, was described as a paradigm shift in personality assessment. Critics of the new scales argue that the removal of this common variance makes the RC scales less ecologically valid (less like real life) because real patients tend to present complex patterns of symptoms. Proponents of

7770-494: The older medication rather than the new medication. For example in the ALLHAT trial, Thiazide diuretics were demonstrated to be superior to calcium channel blockers or angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in reducing cardiovascular events in high risk patients with hypertension. In the ALLHAT study, the clinical control group was not a placebo it was ACEI or Calcium Channel Blockers. Overall, clinical control groups can either be

7875-477: The original 567 items, its hierarchical scale structure provides non-redundant information across 51 scales that are easily interpretable. Validity scales were retained (revised), two new validity scales have been added (Fs in 2008 and RBS in 2011), and there are new scales that capture somatic complaints. All of the MMPI-2-RF's scales demonstrate either increased or equivalent construct and criterion validity compared to their MMPI-2 counterparts. Current versions of

7980-472: The original clinical scales, the RC scales are not saturated with the primary factor (demoralization, now captured in RCdem) which frequently produced diffuse elevations and made interpretation of results difficult; finally, the RC scales have lower interscale correlations and, in contrast to the original clinical scales, contain no interscale item overlap. The effects of removal of the common variance spread across

8085-663: The personality disorder content of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders . Originally, these scales were titled: Aggressiveness, Psychoticism, Constraint, Negative Emotionality/Neuroticism, and Positive Emotionality/Extraversion; however, in the most current edition of the MMPI-2 and MMPI-2-RF, the Constraint and Positive Emotionality scales have been reversed and renamed as Disconstraint and Introversion / Low Positive Emotionality. Across several large samples including clinical, college, and normative populations,

8190-474: The practitioner with a means of clinical diagnosis that could be used by the general medical professional within a variety of settings, as well as nonmedical professionals. The MMPI was developed specifically with an empirical criterion approach to operationalize clinical phenomena derived by selecting items known to be endorsed by patients with certain pathologies . The difference between this approach and other test development strategies used around that time

8295-462: The prevalence or severity of psychological symptoms (F, F B , F P , FBS), and those designed to detect when test-takers are under-reporting or downplaying psychological symptoms (L, K, S). A new addition to the validity scales for the MMPI-2-RF includes an over reporting scale of somatic symptoms (F S ) as well as revised versions of the validity scales of the MMPI-2 (VRIN-r, TRIN-r, F-r, F P -r, FBS-r, L-r, and K-r). The MMPI-2-RF does not include

8400-435: The question to a more arbitrary one: Why are we today unable to confidently undertake the development of significantly more valid and useful tests? Hathaway had expressed disappointment with what he saw as a lack of progress in the field, and openly challenged researchers and academics to strive for innovation and to improve personality assessment through empirical iterative processes. Hathaway ended his professional career with

8505-405: The respondents reflected the ethnic makeup of that time and place.) The MMPI also faced problems as to its terminology and its irrelevance to the population that the test was intended to measure. It became necessary for the MMPI to measure a more diverse number of potential mental health problems, such as "suicidal tendencies, drug abuse, and treatment-related behaviors." The first major revision of

8610-422: The results of the original 10 clinical scales. The current MMPI-2 has 567 items, and usually takes between one and two hours to complete depending on reading level. It is designed to require a 4.6 grade (Flesh-Kincaid) reading level . There is an infrequently used abbreviated form of the test that consists of the MMPI-2's first 370 items. The shorter version has been mainly used in circumstances that have not allowed

8715-626: The results of the scale are consistent). Reliability coefficients were found to be over 0.8 for the test in Hong Kong and were between 0.58 and 0.91 across scales for the mainland. In addition, the correlation of the Chinese MMPI-2 and the English MMPI-2 was found to average 0.64 for the clinical scales and 0.68 for the content scales indicating that the Chinese MMPI-2 is an effective tool of personality assessment. Starke R. Hathaway Starke R. Hathaway (August 22, 1903 – July 4, 1984)

8820-468: The same down-to-earth, questioning, pragmatic approach he used when he began it. Control group In the design of experiments , hypotheses are applied to experimental units in a treatment group . In comparative experiments, members of a control group receive a standard treatment, a placebo , or no treatment at all. There may be more than one treatment group, more than one control group, or both. A placebo control group can be used to support

8925-477: The same way as physical matter could be influenced by electrical and mechanical forces. This was an idea he shared with B. F. Skinner with whom he often engaged in intense discussions and debates. Along with his mechanical proclivities, Hathaway was an avid fisherman and he spent a great deal of time at his cabin in northern Minnesota, fishing for walleyes . However, he was never far from a workshop to continue working on mechanical and electrical projects, up until

9030-470: The scales. To address the issues with the clinical scales, the MMPI-A underwent a revision similar to the restructuring of the MMPI-2 to the MMPI-2-RF. Specifically, a demoralization scale was developed, and each clinical scale underwent exploratory factor analysis to identify its distinctive components. Additionally, the Specific Problems (SP) scales were developed. Whereas the RC scales provide

9135-436: The science of personality assessment. On the occasion honoring Hathaway's contribution in 1969, Harry Harlow wrote: I have always been pleased by the fact that it took an experimental-physiological psychologist to create the most meritorious personality test ever achieved. Frankly, I have often mediated on the intervening variables that must have operated during this intellectual transition, but whatever they may have been,

9240-553: The science of psychology (from personality to physiology) and clinical, applied work advanced the field substantially. Although Hathaway was credited with many contributions and a lasting mark on the field, he discouraged accepting anything as "standard" (even the MMPI). Regarding the movement to revise the MMPI, he noted about what he saw as a "mystery of missing progress". With so many competent efforts over so many years, why have we not yet developed better personality tests? I could extend

9345-554: The test (MMPI-2 and MMPI-2-RF) can be completed on optical scan forms or administered directly to individuals on the computer. The MMPI-2 can generate a Score Report or an Extended Score Report, which includes the Restructured Clinical scales from which the Restructured Form was later developed. The MMPI-2 Extended Score Report includes scores on the original clinical scales as well as Content, Supplementary, and other subscales of potential interest to clinicians. Additionally,

9450-454: The test norms, optimize existing scales, and introduce new scales (that assess disordered eating, compulsivity, impulsivity, and self-importance). It features a new, nationally representative normative sample, selected to match projections for race and ethnicity, education, and age. Spanish language norms are available for use with the U.S. Spanish translation of the MMPI-3. The original clinical scales were designed to measure common diagnoses of

9555-481: The test to capture aspects of human psychopathology that were recognizable and meaningful, despite changes in clinical theories. However, the MMPI had flaws of validity that were soon apparent and could not be overlooked indefinitely. The control group for its original testing consisted of a small number of individuals, mostly young, white, and married men and women from rural areas of the Midwest. (The racial makeup of

9660-414: The test was being translated into foreign languages—by 1976 over 50 translations were available. However, the MMPI had flaws of validity that were soon apparent and could not be overlooked indefinitely. The control group for its original testing consisted of a very small number of individuals, mostly young, white, and married people from rural Midwestern geographic areas. The MMPI also faced problems with

9765-410: The test. They stated: "There is continuing controversy about the appropriateness of the MMPI when decisions involve persons from non-white racial and ethnic backgrounds. In general, studies of such divergent populations as prison inmates, medical patients, psychiatric patients, and high school and college students have found that blacks usually score higher than whites on the L, F, Sc, and Ma scales. There

9870-442: The time he was 8 years old, Hathaway was allowed to build his own workshop outside the family home. Following his electrical interests and drive, Hathaway entered the school of engineering at Ohio University in the early 1920s. However, he was disappointed in the lack of opportunities and outlets that his talent required, and he felt that he was not being challenged. As such, Hathaway began to seek out more challenging material. He

9975-486: The traditional MMPI assessment strategy, but adopts a different theoretical approach to personality test development. The newest version ( MMPI-3 ) was released in 2020. The original authors of the MMPI were American psychologist Starke R. Hathaway and American neurologist J. C. McKinley . The MMPI is copyrighted by the University of Minnesota . The MMPI was designed as an adult measure of psychopathology and personality structure in 1939. Many additions and changes to

10080-499: The various norm groups studied. Raw scores on the scales are transformed into a standardized metric known as T-scores (mean equals 50, standard deviation equals 10), making interpretation easier for clinicians. Test manufacturers and publishers ask test purchasers to prove they are qualified to purchase the MMPI/MMPI-2/MMPI-2-RF and other tests. Psychologist Paul Lees-Haley developed the FBS (Fake Bad Scale). Although

10185-568: The year of his death. He died in Minneapolis in 1984 after an extended illness. Roland Peek (the former chief of Psychological Services for the Department of Public Welfare of Minnesota) contributed to the collection of letters presented to Hathaway at a ceremony honoring his contributions in psychology in 1969. In it, he wrote: Starke Hathaway? One of those unforgettable characters, as everyone knows, of course. But why? Well for me there

10290-518: Was also well known for founding an experimental inpatient treatment unit at the UMN Hospital in the 1960s. Hathaway was often described as pragmatic, a trait that was central to the approach he took to every area he pursued, breaking down larger problems into its component parts. He described himself as a "nuts and bolts" empiricist in everything he undertook. He applied rigorous quantification and empiricism to human and psychological problems. He strongly believed human problems could be "engineered" in much

10395-706: Was an American psychologist who co-authored the psychological assessment known as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). He was a longtime faculty member of the Department of Psychology at the University of Minnesota . Hathaway was born in Central Lake, Michigan , on August 22, 1903, moved to Kansas at the age of 7, and grew up in Marysville, Ohio . As a child, Starke showed great interest in mechanical, electrical, chemical, and quantitative processes. By

10500-574: Was granted the APA Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award in 1959 and served as the APA President in 1963. In 1977, Hathaway received the APA Distinguished Scientific Award for the Applications of Psychology . In the 1930s, the time when Hathaway and McKinley first began constructing their novel personality inventory, psychiatry and neurology had become established clinical specialties in

10605-433: Was immediately attracted to psychology and switched majors, although his approach did not waver and focused on mechanistic and quantitative methods. By 1927, he had graduated from Ohio University with his bachelor's degree in psychology , with a minor in mathematics, and stayed to continue his education. He studied under James P. Porter as a graduate student, whom he considered to be an important influence in his development as

10710-401: Was no longer considered ethical because tight blood pressure control was so much more effective at preventing end points that the clinical control group had to be discontinued. The clinical control group is not always a placebo group. Sometimes the clinical control group can involve comparing a new drug to an older drug in a superiority trial. In a superiority trial, the clinical control group is

10815-415: Was one of the most widely used results of this approach and were included in the MMPI-2 and MMPI-A. The Restructured Clinical scales were designed to be psychometrically improved versions of the original clinical scales, which were known to contain a high level of interscale correlation, overlapping items, and were confounded by the presence of an overarching factor that has since been extracted and placed in

10920-448: Was that it was in many ways atheoretical (not based on any particular theory) and thus the initial test was not aligned with the prevailing psychodynamic theories. Theory in some ways affected the development process, if only because the candidate test items and patient groups on which scales were developed were affected by prevailing personality and psychopathological theories of the time. The approach to MMPI development ostensibly enabled

11025-418: Was that it was in many ways atheoretical (not based on any particular theory) and thus the initial test was not aligned with the prevailing psychodynamic theories. This measure was successful in capturing aspects of human psychopathology that were recognizable and meaningful despite changes in clinical theories. Acceptance of the test grew steadily (Dahlstrom, 1992) until by the late 1950s, the MMPI had become

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