Psychedelic film
142-614: 3,4-Methyl enedioxy methamphetamine ( MDMA ), commonly known as ecstasy (tablet form), and molly (crystal form), is an empathogen–entactogenic drug with stimulant and minor psychedelic properties. In studies, it has been used alongside psychotherapy in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and social anxiety in autism spectrum disorder . The purported pharmacological effects that may be prosocial include altered sensations, increased energy, empathy, and pleasure. When taken by mouth, effects begin in 30 to 45 minutes and last three to six hours. MDMA
284-410: A " club drug " or "party drug" along with MDA ), amphetamine , LSD , GHB , ketamine , methamphetamine , cocaine , and cannabis . In addition to drugs, raves often make use of non-authorized, secret venues, such as squat parties at unoccupied homes, unused warehouses, or aircraft hangars. These concerns are often attributed to a type of moral panic surrounding rave culture. In
426-584: A client in the Midwest. Shulgin may have suspected he played a role in the emergence of MDMA in Chicago. Empathogen%E2%80%93entactogen Empathogens or entactogens are a class of psychoactive drugs that induce the production of experiences of emotional communion, oneness, relatedness, emotional openness—that is, empathy or sympathy—as particularly observed and reported for experiences with 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ( MDMA ). This class of drug
568-447: A conditioned fear response, MDMA also reduces the avoidance of feelings. Patients are then able to trust themselves and their therapist and engage with traumatic memories under the influence of MDMA. Although the therapeutic effects of entactogens may be promising, drugs such as MDMA have the potential for negative effects that are counter productive in a therapy setting. For example, MDMA may make negative cognition worse. This means that
710-457: A countermeasure against drug use at raves. Much of the controversy, moral panic , and law enforcement attention directed at rave culture and its association with drug use may be due to reports of drug overdoses (particularly MDMA) at raves, concerts, and festivals. The Belgian rave scene and sound have their roots in the late 1980s Belgian EBM and New Beat scenes. Originally created by DJs slowing down gay Hi-NRG 45rpm records to 33rpm to create
852-454: A diagnosis of poisoning or assist in the forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal violation or a sudden death. Some drug abuse screening programs rely on hair, saliva, or sweat as specimens. Most commercial amphetamine immunoassay screening tests cross-react significantly with MDMA or its major metabolites, but chromatographic techniques can easily distinguish and separately measure each of these substances. The concentrations of MDA in
994-455: A few large clubs that staged raves on a regular basis, most notably " The Laser Dome ", "The Fridge", " The Hippodrome ", "Club U.K.", and "Trade." "The Laser Dome" featured two separate dance areas, "Hardcore" and "Garage", as well as over 20 video game machines, a silent-movie screening lounge, replicas of the "Statue of Liberty", "San Francisco Bridge", and a large glass maze. In Scotland, event promoters Rezerection held large-scale events across
1136-529: A hydrastinine analogue , methylhydrastinine, at the request of fellow lab members, Walther Beckh and Otto Wolfes. MDMA (called methylsafrylamin, safrylmethylamin or N-Methyl-a-Methylhomopiperonylamin in Merck laboratory reports) was an intermediate compound in the synthesis of methylhydrastinine. Merck was not interested in MDMA itself at the time. On 24 December 1912, Merck filed two patent applications that described
1278-465: A life-threatening condition called serotonin syndrome . Severe overdose resulting in death has also been reported in people who took MDMA in combination with certain monoamine oxidase inhibitors , such as phenelzine (Nardil), tranylcypromine (Parnate), or moclobemide (Aurorix, Manerix). Serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as citalopram (Celexa), duloxetine (Cymbalta), fluoxetine (Prozac), and paroxetine (Paxil) have been shown to block most of
1420-924: A moderate (typically <50 doses used and <100 tablets consumed) lifetime exposure. Nonetheless, moderate MDMA use may still be neurotoxic and what constitutes moderate use is not clearly established. Furthermore, it is not clear yet whether "typical" recreational users of MDMA (1 to 2 pills of 75 to 125 mg MDMA or analogue every 1 to 4 weeks) will develop neurotoxic brain lesions. Long-term exposure to MDMA in humans has been shown to produce marked neurodegeneration in striatal , hippocampal , prefrontal , and occipital serotonergic axon terminals . Neurotoxic damage to serotonergic axon terminals has been shown to persist for more than two years. Elevations in brain temperature from MDMA use are positively correlated with MDMA-induced neurotoxicity. However, most studies on MDMA and serotonergic neurotoxicity in humans focus more on heavy users who consume as much as seven times or more
1562-641: A new youth movement in Germany and Europe. DJs and electronic-music producers such as WestBam proclaimed the existence of a "raving society" and promoted electronic music as legitimate competition for rock and roll . Indeed, electronic dance music and rave subculture became mass movements. Since the mid-1990s, raves had tens of thousands of attendees, youth magazines featured styling tips, and television networks launched music magazines on house and techno music. The annual Love Parade festivals in Berlin and later
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#17327804024031704-497: A particularly large festival, when many individual sound systems such as Bedlam, Circus Warp, DIY, and Spiral Tribe set up near Castlemorton Common. The government acted. Under the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 , the definition of music played at a rave was given as: "Music" includes sounds wholly or predominantly characterised by the emission of a succession of repetitive beats. Sections 63, 64 and 65 of
1846-458: A patient who was experiencing psychological trauma such as PTSD. Traumatic memories can be linked to fear in the patients which makes engaging with these memories difficult. Administration of an entactogen such as MDMA allows the patient to disconnect from the fear associated with the traumatic memories and engage in therapy. MDMA acts by targeting the body's stress response in order to cause this therapeutic effect. In addition to reducing anxiety and
1988-571: A positive experience is not a guarantee and can be contingent on aspects like the setting and the patient's expectations. Additionally there is no clear model of the psychopharmacological means for a positive or negative experience. There is also a potential concern for the neurotoxic effects of MDMA on the fiber density of serotonin neurons in the neocortex . High doses of MDMA may cause potential depletion of serotonergic axons. The same effects may not be caused by lower doses of MDMA required for treatment, however. Rave A rave (from
2130-482: A preparation is 70 to 120 mg with the purity having increased since the 1990s. MDMA is usually consumed by mouth. It is also sometimes snorted . Acute adverse effects are usually the result of high or multiple doses, although single dose toxicity can occur in susceptible individuals. The most serious short-term physical health risks of MDMA are hyperthermia and dehydration . Cases of life-threatening or fatal hyponatremia (excessively low sodium concentration in
2272-559: A rave "chill-out" room or at a rave that plays slower electronic music includes: Raves have historically referred to grassroots organised, anti-establishment and unlicensed all‐night dance parties. Prior to the commercialisation of the rave scene, when large legal venues became the norm for these events, the location of the rave was kept secret until the night of the event, usually being communicated through answering machine messages, mobile messaging, secret flyers, and websites. This level of secrecy, necessary for avoiding any interference by
2414-455: A rave party hidden behind a washing machine in a laundromat. The following is an incomplete list of venues associated with the rave subculture: A sense of participation in a group event is among the chief appeals of rave music and dancing to pulsating beats is its immediate outlet. Raving in itself is a syllabus-free dance, whereby the movements are not predefined and the dance is performed randomly , dancers take immediate inspiration from
2556-518: A rave. The genre "rave", also known as hardcore (not to be confused with hardcore punk ) by early ravers, first appeared amongst the UK "acid" movement during the late 1980s at warehouse parties and other underground venues, as well as on UK pirate radio stations . Another genre called "rave" during the early 1990s, was the Belgian hardcore techno music that emerged from new beat , when techno became
2698-402: A separate dance form that has grown exponentially in the last couple of years early 2010. Glovers use their fingers and hands to move with the beat of the music. And they use the color to create patterns and have different speed settings for the lights on their gloves. These components give the glove artist different ways to fascinate spectators of their light shows. The use of lights can improve
2840-538: A small number of countries, but is illegal in most jurisdictions. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is evaluating the drug for clinical use as of 2021. Canada has allowed limited distribution of MDMA upon application to and approval by Health Canada . In Australia, it may be prescribed in the treatment of PTSD by specifically authorised psychiatrists. In general, MDMA users report feeling
2982-492: A strict minimalistic dress policy, either all white or black attire. Some ravers participate in one of four light-oriented dances, called glowsticking , glowstringing , gloving , and lightshows . Of the four types of light-orientated dances, gloving in particular has evolved far beyond the rave culture. Other types of light-related dancing include LED lights, flash-lights and blinking strobe lights. LEDs come in various colours with different settings. Gloving has evolved into
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#17327804024033124-423: A subsequent study, systemically administered C25, a non-peptide oxytocin receptor antagonist, failed to affect MDMA-induced prosocial behavior, whereas the vasopressin V 1A receptor antagonist relcovaptan (SR-49059) was able to block MDMA-induced prosocial activity. It might be that tocinoic acid is non-selective and also blocks the vasopressin V 1A receptor or that C25 is peripherally selective and
3266-474: A trance-dance groove, New Beat evolved into a native form of hardcore techno in the 1990s with the introduction of techno records played at their original speeds or even slightly accelerated. This brutal new hardcore style spread throughout the European rave circuit and penetrated the pop charts. The musical contribution of Brooklyn's DJ-producer Joey Beltram to R&S Records, run by Renaat Vandepapeliere,
3408-572: A varying degree of entactogenic effects; some of them induce additional effects, including serenic effects, stimulant effects, antidepressant effects, anxiolytic effects, and psychedelic effects. Psychiatrists began using entactogens as psychotherapy tools in the 1970s despite the lack of clinical trials. In recent years, the scientific community has been revisiting the possible therapeutic uses of entactogens. Therapeutic models using MDMA have been studied because of its entactogenic properties. This type of therapy would be applicable for treating
3550-522: A wave of psychedelic and other electronic dance music , most notably acid house music, emerged from acid house music parties in the mid-to-late 1980s in the Chicago area in the United States. After Chicago acid house artists began experiencing overseas success, acid house quickly spread and caught on in the United Kingdom within clubs, warehouses and free-parties, first in Manchester in
3692-798: A wide range of both psychoactive, anti-psychotic, and non-psychoactive drugs. As of 2023, MDMA therapies have only been approved for research purposes, with no widely accepted medical indications , although this varies by jurisdiction. Before it was widely banned, it saw limited use in psychotherapy. In 2017 the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted breakthrough therapy designation for MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), with some preliminary evidence that MDMA may facilitate psychotherapy efficacy for PTSD. Pilot studies indicate that MDMA-assisted psychotherapy may be beneficial in treating social anxiety in autistic adults . In these pilot studies,
3834-451: Is amplified with a large, powerful sound reinforcement system , typically with large subwoofers to produce a deep bass sound. The music is often accompanied by laser light shows , projected coloured images , visual effects and fog machines . While some raves may be small parties held at nightclubs or private homes, some raves have grown to immense size, such as the large festivals and events featuring multiple DJs and dance areas (e.g.,
3976-414: Is associated with depression and anxiety, even after quitting the drug. Depression is one of the main reasons for cessation of use. At high doses, MDMA induces a neuroimmune response that, through several mechanisms, increases the permeability of the blood–brain barrier , thereby making the brain more susceptible to environmental toxins and pathogens . In addition, MDMA has immunosuppressive effects in
4118-664: Is associated with high motor activity, reduced sense of identity, and poor awareness of surroundings. Use of MDMA individually or in small groups in a quiet environment and when concentrating, is associated with increased lucidity, concentration, sensitivity to aesthetic aspects of the environment, enhanced awareness of emotions, and improved capability of communication. In psychotherapeutic settings, MDMA effects have been characterized by infantile ideas, mood lability, and memories and moods connected with childhood experiences. MDMA has been described as an "empathogenic" drug because of its empathy-producing effects. Results of several studies show
4260-640: Is classified as a substituted amphetamine (which includes stimulants like dextroamphetamine and psychedelics like 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine ), which makes MDMA a substituted phenethylamine (which includes other stimulants like methylphenidate and other psychedelics like mescaline ) by the definition of amphetamine. While chemically related both to psychedelics and stimulants, the psychological effects experienced with MDMA were reported to provide obvious and striking aspects of personal relatedness, feelings of connectedness, communion with others, and ability to feel what others feel—in short an empathic resonance
4402-949: Is consistently evoked. While psychedelics like LSD may sometimes yield effects of empathic resonance, these effects tend to be momentary and likely passed over on the way to some other dimension or interest. In contrast, the main characteristic that distinguishes MDMA from LSD-type experiences is the consistency of the effects of emotional communion, relatedness, emotional openness—in short, empathy and sympathy. Entactogens like MDMA are serotonin releasing agents and hence are indirect agonists of serotonin receptors . They produce entactogenic effects in animals such as increased prosocial behavior like adjacent lying, enhanced empathy -like behavior, and antiaggressive effects. Likewise, MDMA increases sociability , prosociality, and emotional empathy in humans. In animals, MDMA induced prosocial behavior and elevations in circulating oxytocin levels and these effects were abolished by pretreatment with
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4544-510: Is correlated with lifetime MDMA usage and are partially reversible with abstinence. Several forms of memory are impaired by chronic ecstasy use; however, the effects for memory impairments in ecstasy users are generally small overall. MDMA use is also associated with increased impulsivity and depression. Serotonin depletion following MDMA use can cause depression in subsequent days. In some cases, depressive symptoms persist for longer periods. Some studies indicate repeated recreational use of ecstasy
4686-452: Is distinguished from the classes of hallucinogen or psychedelic , and amphetamine or stimulants . Major members of this class include MDMA , MDA , MDEA , MDOH , MBDB , 5-APB , 5-MAPB , 6-APB , 6-MAPB , methylone , mephedrone , GHB , αMT , and αET , MDAI among others. Most entactogens are phenethylamines and amphetamines , although several, such as αMT and αET, are tryptamines . When referring to MDMA and its counterparts,
4828-620: Is frequently cut in order to increase volume. A scheme for management of acute MDMA toxicity has been published focusing on treatment of hyperthermia, hyponatraemia, serotonin syndrome, and multiple organ failure. A number of drug interactions can occur between MDMA and other drugs, including serotonergic drugs. MDMA also interacts with drugs which inhibit CYP450 enzymes, like ritonavir (Norvir), particularly CYP2D6 inhibitors. Life-threatening reactions and death have occurred in people who took MDMA while on ritonavir. Concurrent use of MDMA high dosages with another serotonergic drug can result in
4970-665: Is sometimes taken in conjunction with other psychoactive drugs such as LSD , psilocybin mushrooms , 2C-B , and ketamine . The combination with LSD is called "candy-flipping". The combination with 2C-B is called "nexus flipping". For this combination, most people take the MDMA first, wait until the peak is over, and then take the 2C-B. MDMA is often co-administered with alcohol , methamphetamine , and prescription drugs such as SSRIs with which MDMA has several drug-drug interactions. Three life-threatening reports of MDMA co-administration with ritonavir have been reported; with ritonavir having severe and dangerous drug-drug interactions with
5112-526: Is synthesized using MDP2P (3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone) as a precursor. MDP2P in turn is generally synthesized from piperonal , safrole or isosafrole . One method is to isomerize safrole to isosafrole in the presence of a strong base, and then oxidize isosafrole to MDP2P. Another method uses the Wacker process to oxidize safrole directly to the MDP2P intermediate with a palladium catalyst. Once
5254-451: Is the street name for alkyl nitrites (the most well-known being amyl nitrite ), which are inhaled for their intoxicating effects, notably the "rush" or "high" they can provide. Nitrites originally came as small glass capsules that were popped open, which led to the nickname "poppers." The drug became popular in the US first on the disco/club scene of the 1970s and then at dance and rave venues in
5396-513: Is unable to block oxytocin receptors in the brain. More research is needed to clarify this. In any case, in another study, the non-peptide and centrally active selective oxytocin receptor antagonist L-368899 abolished MDMA-induced prosocial behavior. Conversely, in other studies, different oxytocin receptor antagonists were ineffective. As in animals, MDMA greatly increases circulating oxytocin levels in humans. Serotonin reuptake inhibitors and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors reduced
5538-562: The Castlemorton Common Festival in 1992). Some electronic dance music festivals have features of raves, but on a larger, often commercial scale. Raves may last for a long time, with some events continuing for twenty-four hours, and lasting all through the night. Law enforcement raids and anti-rave laws have presented a challenge to the rave scene in many countries. This is due to the association of rave culture with illegal drugs such as MDMA (often referred to as
5680-669: The DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for substance dependence . However, there is little evidence for a specific diagnosable MDMA dependence syndrome because MDMA is typically used relatively infrequently. There are currently no medications to treat MDMA addiction. MDMA is a moderately teratogenic drug (i.e., it is toxic to the fetus). In utero exposure to MDMA is associated with a neuro - and cardiotoxicity and impaired motor functioning. Motor delays may be temporary during infancy or long-term. The severity of these developmental delays increases with heavier MDMA use. MDMA has been shown to promote
5822-599: The Home Counties ; it was this that gave the band Orbital their name. These ranged from former warehouses and industrial sites in London, to fields and country clubs in the countryside. Rave music may either refer to the late 1980s/early 1990s genres of house , new beat , breakbeat , acid house , techno and hardcore techno , which were the first genres of music to be played at rave parties, or to any other genre of electronic dance music (EDM) that may be played at
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5964-1149: The Tresor (est. 1991), the Planet (1991–1993), and the Bunker (1992–1996). In Frankfurt , the Omen opened in 1988, which under its operator Sven Väth became the center of the scene in the Rhein-Main area in the following years. In 1990, the Babalu Club opened in Munich, introducing the concept of afterhours in Germany. In the late 1990s, the venues Tresor and E-Werk (1993–1997) in Berlin, Omen (1988–1998) and Dorian Gray (1978–2000) in Frankfurt, Ultraschall (1994–2003), KW – Das Heizkraftwerk (1996–2003) and Natraj Temple (1996–2008) in Munich, as well as Stammheim (1994–2002) in Kassel , had established themselves as
6106-673: The United States Army commissioned a study of toxicity and behavioral effects in animals injected with mescaline and several analogues, including MDMA. Conducted at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor , these investigations were declassified in October 1969 and published in 1973. A 1960 Polish paper by Biniecki and Krajewski describing the synthesis of MDMA as an intermediate was the first published scientific paper on
6248-598: The peripheral nervous system and pro-inflammatory effects in the central nervous system . MDMA may increase the risk of cardiac valvulopathy in heavy or long-term users due to activation of serotonin 5-HT 2B receptors . MDMA induces cardiac epigenetic changes in DNA methylation , particularly hypermethylation changes. Approximately 60% of MDMA users experience withdrawal symptoms when they stop taking MDMA. Some of these symptoms include fatigue, loss of appetite, depression, and trouble concentrating. Tolerance to some of
6390-541: The striatum , the mechanisms by which it induces ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens are analogous to other dopaminergic psychostimulants. Therefore, chronic use of MDMA at high doses can result in altered brain structure and drug addiction that occur as a consequence of ΔFosB overexpression in the nucleus accumbens. MDMA is less addictive than other stimulants such as methamphetamine and cocaine. Compared with amphetamine, MDMA and its metabolite MDA are less reinforcing. One study found approximately 15% of chronic MDMA users met
6532-676: The verb : to rave ) is a dance party at a warehouse, club, or other public or private venue, typically featuring performances by DJs playing electronic dance music . The style is most associated with the early 1990s dance music scene when DJs played at illegal events in musical styles dominated by electronic dance music from a wide range of sub-genres, including drum and bass , dubstep , trap , break , happy hardcore , trance , techno , hardcore , house , and alternative dance . Occasionally live musicians have been known to perform at raves, in addition to other types of performance artists such as go-go dancers and fire dancers . The music
6674-524: The 1980s and 1990s. In the 2000s, synthetic phenethylamines such as 2C-I , 2C-B and DOB have been referred to as club drugs due to their stimulating and psychedelic nature (and their chemical relationship with MDMA ). By late 2012, derivates of the psychedelic 2C-X drugs, the NBOMes and especially 25I-NBOMe , had become common at raves in Europe. In the U.S., some law enforcement agencies have branded
6816-543: The 1990s include tight-fitting nylon shirts, tight nylon quilted vests, bell-bottoms , neoprene jackets, studded belts, platform shoes , jackets, scarves and bags made of flokati fur, fluffy boots and phat pants , often in bright and neon colours. Also gaudy coloured hair, dreadlocks, tattoos and piercings came into fashion with ravers. Widespread accessories included wristbands and collars, whistles , pacifiers , white gloves, glow sticks , feather boas , oversized sunglasses , and record bags made of truck tarpaulins. In
6958-520: The 2000s, the clothing style of the rave culture remains heterogeneous, as do its followers. Particularly in North America, rave fashion continues to be characterised by colourful clothing and accessories, most notably the "kandi" jewellery that fluoresces under ultraviolet light. They contain words or phrases that are unique to the raver and that they can choose to trade with each other using "PLUR" (Peace, Love, Unity, Respect). This style of attire
7100-619: The 2010s, there continued to be a vivid rave and techno scene throughout the country, including numerous festivals and world-class techno clubs also outside of Berlin, such as for example MMA Club and Blitz Club in Munich, Institut für Zukunft in Leipzig or Robert Johnson in Offenbach. The UK was finally recognised for its rave culture in the late 1980s and early 1990s. By 1991, organisations such as Fantazia and Raindance were holding massive legal raves in fields and warehouses around
7242-469: The 4,000 that came to earlier warehouse parties). Acid house music parties were first re-branded "rave parties" in the media, during the summer of 1989 by Genesis P-Orridge during a television interview; however, the ambience of the rave was not fully formed until the early 1990s. In 1990, raves were held "underground" in several cities, such as Berlin , Milan and Patras , in basements, warehouses and forests. British politicians responded with hostility to
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#17327804024037384-454: The Act targeted electronic dance music played at raves. The Criminal Justice and Public Order Act empowered police to stop a rave in the open air when a hundred or more people are attending, or where two or more are making preparations for a rave. Section 65 allows any uniformed constable who believes a person is on their way to a rave within a five-mile radius to stop them and direct them away from
7526-534: The FBI, raves are one of the most popular venues where club drugs are distributed, and as such feature a prominent drug subculture. Club drugs include MDMA (more commonly known as "ecstasy", "E" or "molly"), 2C-B (more commonly known as "nexus"), amphetamine (commonly referred to as "speed"), GHB (commonly referred to as "fantasy" or "liquid E"), cocaine (commonly referred to as "coke"), DMT , and LSD (commonly referred to as "lucy" or "acid"). " Poppers "
7668-504: The MDP2P intermediate has been prepared, a reductive amination leads to racemic MDMA (an equal parts mixture of ( R )-MDMA and ( S )-MDMA). Relatively small quantities of essential oil are required to make large amounts of MDMA. The essential oil of Ocotea cymbarum , for example, typically contains between 80 and 94% safrole. This allows 500 mL of the oil to produce between 150 and 340 grams of MDMA. MDMA and MDA may be quantitated in blood, plasma or urine to monitor for use, confirm
7810-616: The Metropolitan Ruhr area repeatedly attracted more than one million party-goers between 1997 and 2010. Dozens of other annual technoparades took place in Germany and Central Europe in the 1990s and early 2000s, the largest ones being Union Move , Generation Move, Reincarnation and Vision Parade as well as Street Parade and Lake Parade in Switzerland. Large commercial raves since the nineties include Mayday , Nature One , Time Warp , SonneMondSterne and Melt! . Since
7952-478: The New Moon and Gateway collectives, "pagan altars are set up, sacred images from primitive cultures decorate the walls, and rituals of cleansing are performed over the turntables and the dance floor" This type of spatial strategy is an integral part of the raving experience because it sets the initial "vibe" in which the ravers will immerse themselves. This said "vibe" is a concept in the raver ethos that represents
8094-537: The R-enantiomer. Evidence suggests that the area under the blood plasma concentration versus time curve (AUC) was two to four times higher for the ( R )-enantiomer than the ( S )-enantiomer after a 40 mg oral dose in human volunteers. Likewise, the plasma half-life of ( R )-MDMA was significantly longer than that of the ( S )-enantiomer (5.8 ± 2.2 hours vs 3.6 ± 0.9 hours). However, because MDMA excretion and metabolism have nonlinear kinetics,
8236-468: The United States in 1970. American chemist and psychopharmacologist Alexander Shulgin reported he synthesized MDMA in 1965 while researching methylenedioxy compounds at Dow Chemical Company , but did not test the psychoactivity of the compound at this time. Around 1970, Shulgin sent instructions for N-methylated MDA (MDMA) synthesis to the founder of a Los Angeles chemical company who had requested them. This individual later provided these instructions to
8378-528: The Western world. Studies have shown that adolescents are more likely than young adults to use multiple drugs, and the consumption of club drugs is highly associated with the presence of criminal behaviors and recent alcohol abuse or dependence . In May 2007, Antonio Maria Costa, executive director of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime , advocated drug testing on highways as
8520-563: The Zippies staged an act of electronic civil disobedience to protest against the CJB (i.e., Criminal Justice Bill ). After 1993, the main outlet for raves in the UK were a number of licensed parties, amongst them Helter Skelter , Life at Bowlers (Trafford Park, Manchester), The Edge (formerly the Eclipse [Coventry]), The Sanctuary (Milton Keynes) and Club Kinetic. In London, itself, there were
8662-401: The acid house movement of the 1980s. Further popular themes of the early rave scene were plastic aesthetics, various fetish styles, DIY , 1970s, second-hand optics, retro sportswear (such as Adidas tracksuits), sex (showing much skin and nudity, e.g. wearing transparent or crop tops), war (e.g. in the form of combat boots or camouflage trousers), and science fiction. Common fashion styles of
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#17327804024038804-509: The ages of 15 and 64 used ecstasy (0.3% of the world population). This was broadly similar to the percentage of people who use cocaine or amphetamines , but lower than for cannabis or opioids . In the United States, as of 2017, about 7% of people have used MDMA at some point in their lives and 0.9% have used it in the last year. The lethal risk from one dose of MDMA is estimated to be from 1 death in 20,000 instances to 1 death in 50,000 instances. Short-term adverse effects include grinding of
8946-526: The allure and receptiveness of an environment's portrayed and or innate energy. The landscape is an integral feature in the composition of rave, much like it is in pagan rituals. For example, The Numic Ghost Dancers rituals were held on specific geographical sites, considered to hold powerful natural flows of energy. These sites were later represented in the rhythmic dances, to achieve a greater level of connectivity. The Falls festival in Byron Bay features
9088-477: The amount that most users report taking. The evidence for the presence of serotonergic neurotoxicity in casual users who take lower doses less frequently is not conclusive. However, adverse neuroplastic changes to brain microvasculature and white matter have been observed to occur in humans using low doses of MDMA. Reduced gray matter density in certain brain structures has also been noted in human MDMA users. Global reductions in gray matter volume, thinning of
9230-424: The area; non-compliant citizens may be subject to a maximum fine not exceeding level 3 on the standard scale (£1000). The Act was officially introduced because of the noise and disruption caused by all night parties to nearby residents, and to protect the countryside. However, some participants in the scene claimed it was an attempt to lure youth culture away from MDMA and back to taxable alcohol . In November 1994,
9372-408: The blood or urine of a person who has taken only MDMA are, in general, less than 10% those of the parent drug. MDMA was first synthesized in 1912 by Merck chemist Anton Köllisch . At the time, Merck was interested in developing substances that stopped abnormal bleeding. Merck wanted to avoid an existing patent held by Bayer for one such compound: hydrastinine . Köllisch developed a preparation of
9514-411: The blood) have developed in MDMA users attempting to prevent dehydration by consuming excessive amounts of water without replenishing electrolytes . The immediate adverse effects of MDMA use can include: Other adverse effects that may occur or persist for up to a week following cessation of moderate MDMA use include: Administration of MDMA to mice causes DNA damage in their brain, especially when
9656-464: The burgeoning mod youth culture of the early 1960s as the way to describe any wild party in general. People who were gregarious party animals were described as "ravers". Pop musicians such as Steve Marriott of Small Faces and Keith Moon of the Who were self-described "ravers". Presaging the word's subsequent 1980s association with electronic music , the word "rave" was a common term used regarding
9798-403: The corresponding benzoic acid derivatives conjugated with glycine . The metabolism may be primarily by cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 and COMT. Complex, nonlinear pharmacokinetics arise via autoinhibition of CYP2D6 and CYP2D8, resulting in zeroth order kinetics at higher doses. It is thought that this can result in sustained and higher concentrations of MDMA if
9940-470: The country. By 1997, the popularity of weekly Superclub nights had taken over from the old Rave format, with a raft of new club-based genres sweeping in (e.g. Trance, Hard House, Speed and UK garage) alongside the more traditional House sound that had regained popularity. Clubs like Gatecrasher and Cream rose to prominence with dress codes and door policies that were the polar opposite of their rave counterparts; stories of refused entry due to not wearing
10082-486: The country. The Fantazia party at Castle Donington, July 1992 was an open-air, all-night event. The Vision at Pophams airfield in August 1992 and Universe's Tribal Gathering in 1993 had a more festival feel. By the middle of 1992, the scene was slowly changing, with local councils passing by-laws and increasing fees in an effort to prevent or discourage rave organisations from acquiring necessary licences. This meant that
10224-420: The days of the large one-off parties were numbered. By the mid-1990s, the scene had also fragmented into many different styles of dance music, making large parties more expensive to set up and more difficult to promote. The sound driving the big raves of the early 1990s had by the end of 1993 split into two distinct and polarising styles, the darker jungle and the faster happy hardcore . Although many ravers left
10366-429: The desired and adverse effects of MDMA is expected to occur with consistent MDMA use. A 2007 delphic analysis of a panel of experts in pharmacology, psychiatry, law, policing and others estimated MDMA to have a psychological dependence and physical dependence potential roughly three-fourths to four-fifths that of cannabis. MDMA has been shown to induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens . Because MDMA releases dopamine in
10508-433: The drug and increase profits (notably lactose) and binding agents. Tablets sold as ecstasy sometimes contain 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA), other amphetamine derivatives, caffeine, opiates, or painkillers. Some tablets contain little or no MDMA. The proportion of seized ecstasy tablets with MDMA-like impurities has varied annually and by country. The average content of MDMA in
10650-418: The drug in 1952, most likely while researching new stimulants or circulatory medications. After pharmacological studies, research on MDMA was not continued. In 1959, Wolfgang Fruhstorfer synthesized MDMA for pharmacological testing while researching stimulants. It is unclear if Fruhstorfer investigated the effects of MDMA in humans. Outside of Merck, other researchers began to investigate MDMA. In 1953 and 1954,
10792-443: The drugs that go beyond instilling feelings of empathy. The hybrid word entactogen is derived from the roots en ( Greek : within ), tactus ( Latin : touch ) and -gen ( Greek : produce ). Entactogen is not becoming dominant in usage, and, despite their difference in connotation, they are essentially interchangeable, as they refer to precisely the same chemicals. In 2024, an additional alternative term, connectogen ,
10934-418: The early 1990s the first commercial rave fashion trends developed from this, which were quickly taken up by the fashion industry and marketed under the term clubwear . Different dress codes also evolved in the various sub-scenes of the rave culture. For example, the typical gabber or psytrance raver dressed significantly different from "normal" ravers, but common basic features remained recognisable. Since
11076-405: The effects of increased empathy with others. When testing MDMA for medium and high doses, it showed increased hedonic and arousal continuum. The effect of MDMA increasing sociability is consistent, while its effects on empathy have been more mixed. MDMA is often considered the drug of choice within the rave culture and is also used at clubs, festivals, and house parties . In the rave environment,
11218-486: The ego with the other elements such as place and music and [one] enter[s] a "one state" where [they] cannot distinguish what is material or not, where things enter into syntony and constitute a unique moment, precisely the kind sought in medi[t]ation". However, disco dancers and ravers preferred different drugs. Whereas 1970s disco scene members preferred cocaine and the depressant/sedative Quaaludes , ravers preferred MDMA, 2C-B, amphetamine , and other pills. According to
11360-428: The emerging rave party trend. Politicians spoke out against raves and began to fine promoters who held unauthorised parties. Police crackdowns on these often unauthorised parties drove the rave scene into the countryside. The word "rave" somehow caught on in the UK to describe common semi-spontaneous weekend parties occurring at various locations linked by the brand new M25 London orbital motorway that ringed London and
11502-663: The first Love Parade took place in West Berlin. Immediately after the Berlin Wall fell on 9 November 1989, free underground techno parties mushroomed in East Berlin . According to East German DJ Paul van Dyk the techno-based rave scene was a major force in re-establishing social connections between East and West Germany during the unification period. Soon the first techno clubs emerged in East Berlin such as
11644-496: The first major municipality in Canada to pass a bylaw with respect to raves. The intent of the bylaw was to ensure that raves would be safe for participants, and also not unduly disruptive to adjacent neighbourhoods. The bylaw was created in consultation with representatives from the municipality, the province of Alberta, and the rave community. In West Germany and West Berlin , a substantial acid house scene had established itself in
11786-471: The full quality and "magic" of MDMA. Exceptions may anecdotally include 5-MAPB , particularly in specific enantiomer ratios, and the Borax combo . The unique properties of MDMA are believed to be dependent on a very specific mixture and ratio of pharmacological activities, including combined serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine release and direct serotonin receptor agonism. The chemicals below have
11928-555: The global supply shortage of sassafras oil —a problem largely assuaged by use of improved or alternative modern methods of synthesis—the purity of substances sold as molly have been found to vary widely. Some of these substances contain methylone , ethylone , MDPV , mephedrone , or any other of the group of compounds commonly known as bath salts , in addition to, or in place of, MDMA. Powdered MDMA ranges from pure MDMA to crushed tablets with 30–40% purity. MDMA tablets typically have low purity due to bulking agents that are added to dilute
12070-722: The half-lives would be higher at more typical doses (100 mg is sometimes considered a typical dose). MDMA is in the substituted methylenedioxyphenethylamine and substituted amphetamine classes of chemicals . As a free base , MDMA is a colorless oil insoluble in water. The most common salt of MDMA is the hydrochloride salt; pure MDMA hydrochloride is water-soluble and appears as a white or off-white powder or crystal. There are numerous methods available to synthesize MDMA via different intermediates. The original MDMA synthesis described in Merck's patent involves brominating safrole to 1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-bromopropane and then reacting this adduct with methylamine. Most illicit MDMA
12212-409: The key pharmacological action mediating the entactogenic, prosocial, and empathy-enhancing effects of the drug. However, in addition to serotonin release, MDMA is also a potent releasing agent of norepinephrine and dopamine , and hence acts as a well-balanced serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine releasing agent . Additionally, MDMA is a direct agonist of several serotonin receptors, including of
12354-457: The late 1950s in London, England, the term "rave" was used to describe the "wild bohemian parties" of the Soho beatnik set. Jazz musician Mick Mulligan , known for indulging in such excesses, had the nickname "king of the ravers". In 1958, Buddy Holly recorded the hit " Rave On ", citing the madness and frenzy of a feeling and the desire for it never to end. The word "rave" was later used in
12496-602: The late 1980s, rave fashion has undergone constant evolution with each new generation of ravers. Many of the rave fashion trends have appeared internationally, but there were also individual developments from region to region and from scene to scene. At early rave parties, often costume-like clothes and garments with signal color look such as protective suits, safety vests , dust and gas masks were worn and combined with accessories such as vacuum cleaners or cyberpunk inspired goggles . Clothing with slogans such as " Peace, Love, Unity " and smiley-face T-shirts first appeared with
12638-548: The late 1980s. In the West Berlin club Ufo , an illegal party venue located in the basement of an old apartment building, the first acid house parties took place in 1988. In Munich at this time, the Negerhalle (1983–1989) and the ETA-Halle established themselves as the first acid house clubs in temporarily used, dilapidated industrial halls, marking the beginning of the so-called hall culture in Germany. In July 1989,
12780-492: The late 2000s, Berlin is still called the capital of techno and rave, and techno clubs such as Berghain , Tresor , KitKatClub or Watergate and the way to party in barely renovated venues, ruins or wooden shacks such as, among many others, Club der Visionaere , Wilde Renate , or Bar 25 , attracted international media attention. One movie that portraits the scene of the 2000s is Berlin Calling starring Paul Kalkbrenner. In
12922-423: The latter. The methylenedioxy- substitution provides the serotonergic activity, as most other substituted amphetamines show negligible affinity for the serotonin transporter. Neurotransmitter release induced by monoamine-releasing agents differs significantly from the regular, action potential -evoked neurotransmitter release. Inside the neuron, MDMA inhibits VMAT2 and activates TAAR1 . TAAR1 agonism results in
13064-474: The line, "It's a crash course for the ravers." Its use during that era would have been perceived as a quaint or ironic use of bygone slang: part of the dated 1960s lexicon along with words such as "groovy". The perception of the word "rave" changed again in the late 1980s when the term was revived and adopted by a new youth culture, possibly inspired by the use of the term in Jamaica. In the mid to late 1980s,
13206-575: The main style in the Belgian EDM scene. The "rave" genre would develop into oldschool hardcore , which lead onto newer forms of rave music such as drum and bass , 2-step and happy hardcore as well as other hardcore techno genres, such as gabber and hardstyle . Rave music is usually presented in a DJ mix set, although live performances are not uncommon. Styles of music include: Downtempo and less dance-oriented styles which are sometimes called chill-out music , that might be heard in
13348-645: The mice are sleep deprived. Even at the very low doses that are comparable to those self-administered by humans, MDMA causes oxidative stress and both single and double-strand breaks in the DNA of the hippocampus region of the mouse brain. As of 2015, the long-term effects of MDMA on human brain structure and function have not been fully determined. However, there is consistent evidence of structural and functional deficits in MDMA users with high lifetime exposure. These structural or functional changes appear to be dose dependent and may be less prominent in MDMA users with only
13490-720: The mid-1980s and then later in London. In the late 1980s, the word "rave" was adopted to describe the subculture that grew out of the acid house movement. Activities were related to the party atmosphere of Ibiza , a Mediterranean island in Spain, frequented by British, Italian, Greek, Irish and German youth on vacation, who would hold raves and dance parties. By the 1990s, genres such as acid , breakbeat hardcore , hardcore , happy hardcore , gabber , drum and bass , post-industrial and electronica were all being featured at raves, both large and small. There were mainstream events which attracted thousands of people (up to 25,000 instead of
13632-406: The mild psychedelic hallucinations induced by high doses of MDMA in humans. The MDMA concentration in the blood stream starts to rise after about 30 minutes, and reaches its maximal concentration in the blood stream between 1.5 and 3 hours after ingestion . It is then slowly metabolized and excreted , with levels of MDMA and its metabolites decreasing to half their peak concentration over
13774-465: The mod era of 1963–1966 to the hippie era of 1967 and beyond, the term fell out of popular usage. The Northern soul movement is cited by many as being a significant step towards the creation of contemporary club culture and of the superstar DJ culture of the 2000s. As in contemporary club culture, Northern soul DJs built up a following based on satisfying the crowd's desires for music that they could not hear anywhere else. Many argue that Northern soul
13916-489: The most renowned techno clubs in Germany. Parallel to the established club scene, illegal raves remained an integral part of the German rave scene throughout the 1990s. In urbanised Germany illegal raves and techno parties often preferred industrial sceneries such as decommissioned power stations, factories, the canalisation or former military properties of the cold war. In the course of the 1990s, rave culture became part of
14058-494: The music of mid-1960s garage rock and psychedelia bands (most notably the Yardbirds , who released an album in the United States called Having a Rave Up ). Along with being an alternative term for partying at such garage events in general, the "rave-up" referred to a specific crescendo moment near the end of a song where the music was played faster, more heavily and with intense soloing or elements of controlled feedback. It
14200-523: The music, their mood and watching other people dancing. Thus, the electronic, rave and club dances, also known as Post-Internet Dances refer to the street dance styles that evolved alongside electronic music culture. A common feature shared by all these dances, along with being originated at clubs, raves and music festivals around the world and in different years, is that when YouTube and other social media started to become popular (around 2006), these dances began to be popularised by videos of raves. Since
14342-612: The next several hours. The duration of action of MDMA is usually four to six hours, after which serotonin levels in the brain are depleted. Serotonin levels typically return to normal within 24–48 hours. Metabolites of MDMA that have been identified in humans include 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA), 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine (HMA), 3,4-dihydroxyamphetamine (DHA) (also called alpha-methyldopamine (α-Me-DA)), 3,4-methylenedioxyphenylacetone (MDP2P), and 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-hydroxyamphetamine (MDOH). The contributions of these metabolites to
14484-440: The onset of subjective effects within 30 to 60 minutes of oral consumption and reaching peak effect at 75 to 120 minutes, which then plateaus for about 3.5 hours. The desired short-term psychoactive effects of MDMA have been reported to include: The experience elicited by MDMA depends on the dose, setting, and user. The variability of the induced altered state is lower compared to other psychedelics. For example, MDMA used at parties
14626-456: The parietal and orbitofrontal cortices, and decreased hippocampal activity have been observed in long term users. The effects established so far for recreational use of ecstasy lie in the range of moderate to severe effects for serotonin transporter reduction. Impairments in multiple aspects of cognition, including attention, learning, memory, visual processing , and sleep, have been found in regular MDMA users. The magnitude of these impairments
14768-403: The phosphorylation of monoamine transporters by PKA and PKC , which either internalizes the transporter, or reverses its flux direction. VMAT2 inhibition prevents the packaging of the cytosolic monoamines into the synaptic vesicles , which allows them to instead be pumped out of the neuron by the phosphorylated transporters. The result is that the neuron constantly "leaks" neurotransmitters into
14910-520: The police, also on account of the illicit drug use, enabled the ravers to use locations they could stay in for ten hours at a time. It promoted the sense of deviance and removal from social control. In the 2000s, this level of secrecy still exists in the underground rave scene. However "after-hours" clubs, as well as large outdoor events, create a similar type of alternate atmosphere, but focus much more on vibrant visual effects, such as props and décor. In more recent years, large commercial events are held at
15052-589: The potential treatment of social deficits and aggression . Examples include batoprazine , eltoprazine (DU-28853), fluprazine (DU-27716), F-15,599 (NLX-01), zolmitriptan (ML-004), and LIT-001 . Serotonergic psychedelics , for instance lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin , which act as non-selective serotonin receptor agonists including of the serotonin 5-HT 1 and 5-HT 2 receptors , have shown prosocial and empathy-enhancing effects in animals and/or humans as well, both acutely and long-term. The serotonin release of MDMA appears to be
15194-506: The presence of possible adulterants or diluents. The UK term "mandy" and the US term "molly" colloquially refer to MDMA in a crystalline powder form that is thought to be free of adulterants. MDMA is also sold in the form of the hydrochloride salt, either as loose crystals or in gelcaps . MDMA tablets can sometimes be found in a shaped form that may depict characters from popular culture , likely for deceptive reasons. These are sometimes collectively referred to as "fun tablets". Partly due to
15336-431: The psychoactive and toxic effects of MDMA are an area of active research. 80% of MDMA is metabolised in the liver, and about 20% is excreted unchanged in the urine . MDMA is known to be metabolized by two main metabolic pathways : (1) O -demethylenation followed by catechol- O -methyltransferase (COMT)-catalyzed methylation and/or glucuronide/sulfate conjugation; and (2) N -dealkylation, deamination, and oxidation to
15478-485: The rave scene would soon explode into a massive scene, with 23 Hop as the initial launching pad, until its closure in 1995. The documentary film The Legend of 23 Hop highlighted the early stages of Exodus and similarly modelled production companies. Notable DJs that performed at 23 Hop included Moby , Mark Oliver, Dino & Terry, Sean L., Dr. No, Malik X, DJ Ruffneck, Jungle PhD, Kenny Glasgow, Matt C, John E, Danny Henry and David Crooke. In 2001 Calgary, Alberta became
15620-410: The release of the neurotransmitters serotonin , dopamine , and norepinephrine in parts of the brain. It belongs to the substituted amphetamine classes of drugs . MDMA is structurally similar to mescaline (a psychedelic), methamphetamine (a stimulant), as well as endogenous monoamine neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. MDMA has limited approved medical uses in
15762-444: The role of oxytocin in the entactogenic effects of MDMA in humans is controversial. Other serotonin releasing agents, like fenfluramine , show prosocial effects in animals similar to those of MDMA. Fenfluramine has likewise been reported to improve social deficits in children with autism . Selective agonists of the serotonin 5-HT 1A and 5-HT 1B receptors and of the oxytocin receptors have been or are being investigated for
15904-466: The same locations year after year with similar reoccurring themes every year. Events like Electric Daisy Carnival and Tomorrowland are typically held at the same venue that holds mass numbers of people. Some raves make use of pagan symbolism. Modern raving venues attempt to immerse the raver in a fantasy-like world. Indigenous imagery and spirituality can be characteristic in the Raving ethos. In both
16046-507: The scene due to the split, promoters such as ESP Dreamscape and Helter Skelter still enjoyed widespread popularity and capacity attendances with multi-arena events catering to the various genres. Notable events of this period included ESP's outdoor Dreamscape 20 event on 9 September 1995 at Brafield aerodrome fields, Northants and Helter Skelter's Energy 97 outdoor event on 9 August 1997 at Turweston Aerodrome, Northants. The illegal free party scene also reached its zenith for that time after
16188-460: The sensory effects of music and lighting are often highly synergistic with the drug. The psychedelic amphetamine quality of MDMA offers multiple appealing aspects to users in the rave setting. Some users enjoy the feeling of mass communion from the inhibition-reducing effects of the drug, while others use it as party fuel because of the drug's stimulatory effects. MDMA is used less often than other stimulants, typically less than once per week. MDMA
16330-428: The serotonin 5-HT 1A receptor antagonist WAY-100635 . Conversely, the serotonin 5-HT 1A receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT produced prosocial behavior and increased oxytocin levels similarly to MDMA. In addition, MDMA has been shown to activate oxytocinergic neurons in the hypothalamus and this too is reversed by serotonin 5-HT 1A receptor antagonism. Subsequent research found that direct injection of
16472-527: The serotonin 5-HT 1B receptor antagonist GR-55562 and the serotonin 5-HT 2A receptor antagonist ketanserin were both ineffective. Likewise, another study found that selective antagonists of the serotonin 5-HT 1B , 5-HT 2A , 5-HT 2C , and 5-HT 4 receptors ( SB-216641 ), volinanserin (MDL-100907), SB-242084 , and SB-204070 , respectively) were all ineffective in suppressing MDMA-induced prosocial activity. Other research has found that serotonin 5-HT 2B receptor inactivation abolishes
16614-548: The serotonin 5-HT 1A receptor WAY-100635 locally into the basolateral amygdala (BLA) suppressed MDMA-induced prosocial behavior and that direct injection of MDMA locally into the BLA significantly increased sociability. The serotonin 5-HT 2B and 5-HT 2C receptor antagonist SB-206553 has also been found to block MDMA-induced prosocial behavior, although it produced potentially confounding thigmotaxis (hyperactivity at periphery of testing chamber) as well. Conversely,
16756-520: The serotonin 5-HT 1B receptor antagonist NAS-181 directly into the nucleus accumbens blocked the prosocial behaviors of MDMA. On the basis of the serotonin 5-HT 1A receptor-mediated oxytocin release with MDMA, it has been proposed that increased oxytocinergic signaling may mediate the prosocial effects of MDMA in animals. Accordingly, intracerebroventricular injection of the peptide oxytocin receptor antagonist tocinoic acid blocked MDMA- and 8-OH-DPAT-induced prosocial effects. However, in
16898-466: The serotonin 5-HT 2 receptors, with moderate affinity . These actions are thought to play an important role in the effects of MDMA, including in its psychostimulant , euphoriant , and mild psychedelic effects, as well as in its unique and difficult-to-replicate "magic". It has been said by Matthew Baggott that few to no MDMA analogues , including MBDB , methylone , 6-APDB , 5-APDB , 6-APB , 5-APB , MDAT , and MDAI among others, reproduce
17040-475: The serotonin release induced by MDMA and attenuates many of its effects. In addition to the preceding findings, induction of serotonin release by MDMA in the nucleus accumbens and consequent activation of serotonin 5-HT 1B receptors in this area is implicated in its enhancement of prosocial behaviors, whereas consequent activation of yet-to-be-determined serotonin receptors in this area is implicated in its enhancement of empathy-like behaviors. Injection of
17182-455: The subculture as a drug-centric culture, as rave attendees have been known to use drugs such as cannabis , 2C-B , and DMT . Since the early 2000s, medical professionals have acknowledged and addressed the problem of the increasing consumption of alcoholic drinks and club drugs (such as MDMA , cocaine , rohypnol , GHB , ketamine , PCP , LSD , and methamphetamine ) associated with rave culture among adolescents and young adults in
17324-518: The subjective effects of MDMA in humans, for instance increased extroversion , self-confidence , closeness , openness , and talkativeness . The 5-HT 2A receptor antagonist ketanserin reduced MDMA-induced increases in friendliness. MDMA-induced emotional empathy was not affected by the serotonin 5-HT 1A receptor antagonist pindolol or by intranasal oxytocin . Similarly, MDMA-induced emotional empathy and prosocial behavior have not been associated with circulating oxytocin levels. As such,
17466-574: The subjective effects of MDMA. Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors such as reboxetine (Edronax) have been found to reduce emotional excitation and feelings of stimulation with MDMA but do not appear to influence its entactogenic or mood-elevating effects. MDMA is a substituted amphetamine structurally, and a monoamine-releasing agent mechanistically. Like other monoamine-releasing agents, MDMA enters monoaminergic neurons through monoamine transporters . MDMA has high affinity for dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin transporters, with some preference for
17608-429: The substance. MDMA may have been in non-medical use in the western United States in 1968. An August 1970 report at a meeting of crime laboratory chemists indicates MDMA was being used recreationally in the Chicago area by 1970. MDMA likely emerged as a substitute for its analog 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), a drug at the time popular among users of psychedelics which was made a Schedule 1 controlled substance in
17750-581: The survival of fetal dopaminergic neurons in culture. MDMA overdose symptoms vary widely due to the involvement of multiple organ systems. Some of the more overt overdose symptoms are listed in the table below. The number of instances of fatal MDMA intoxication is low relative to its usage rates. In most fatalities, MDMA was not the only drug involved. Acute toxicity is mainly caused by serotonin syndrome and sympathomimetic effects. Sympathomimetic side effects can be managed with carvedilol . MDMA's toxicity in overdose may be exacerbated by caffeine, with which it
17892-469: The synapse, regardless of any signal received. MDMA has two enantiomers , (S) -MDMA and (R) -MDMA. Recreationally used MDMA is the equimolar mixture of both . (S) -MDMA causes the entactogenic effects of the racemate, because it releases serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine much more efficiently via monoamine transporters. It also has higher affinity towards 5-HT 2C R. (R) -MDMA has notable agonism towards 5-HT 2A R, which supposedly contributes to
18034-555: The synthesis and some chemical properties of MDMA and its subsequent conversion to methylhydrastinine. Merck records indicate its researchers returned to the compound sporadically. A 1920 Merck patent describes a chemical modification to MDMA. In 1927, Max Oberlin studied the pharmacology of MDMA while searching for substances with effects similar to adrenaline or ephedrine , the latter being structurally similar to MDMA. Compared to ephedrine, Oberlin observed that it had similar effects on vascular smooth muscle tissue, stronger effects at
18176-456: The teeth , blurred vision , sweating , and a rapid heartbeat , and extended use can also lead to addiction, memory problems , paranoia , and difficulty sleeping . Deaths have been reported due to increased body temperature and dehydration. Following use, people often feel depressed and tired, although this effect does not appear in clinical use, suggesting that it is not a direct result of MDMA administration. MDMA acts primarily by increasing
18318-535: The term MDxx is often used (with the exception of MDPV ). Entactogens are sometimes incorrectly referred to as hallucinogens or stimulants, although many entactogens such as ecstasy exhibit psychedelic or stimulant properties as well. The term empathogen , meaning "generating a state of empathy ", was coined in 1983–84 by Ralph Metzner as a term to denote a therapeutic class of drugs that includes MDMA and phenethylamine relatives. David E. Nichols in 1986 rejected this initial terminology and adopted, instead,
18460-509: The term entactogen , meaning "producing a touching within", to denote this class of drugs, asserting a concern with the potential for improper association of the term empathogen with negative connotations related to the Greek root πάθος páthos ("suffering; passion"). Additionally, Nichols wanted to avoid any association with the term pathogenesis . Nichols also thought the original term was limiting, and did not cover other therapeutic uses for
18602-509: The user takes consecutive doses of the drug. MDMA and metabolites are primarily excreted as conjugates, such as sulfates and glucuronides. MDMA is a chiral compound and has been almost exclusively administered as a racemate . However, the two enantiomers have been shown to exhibit different kinetics. The disposition of MDMA may also be stereoselective, with the S-enantiomer having a shorter elimination half-life and greater excretion than
18744-463: The uterus, and no "local effect at the eye". MDMA was also found to have effects on blood sugar levels comparable to high doses of ephedrine. Oberlin concluded that the effects of MDMA were not limited to the sympathetic nervous system . Research was stopped "particularly due to a strong price increase of safrylmethylamine", which was still used as an intermediate in methylhydrastinine synthesis. Albert van Schoor performed simple toxicological tests with
18886-451: The various elements of 1970s disco subculture that ravers drew on, in addition to basing their scene around dance music mixed by DJs, ravers also inherited the positive attitude towards using club drugs to "enhanc[e]...the sensory experience" of dancing to loud music. The state of mind referred to as "ecstasy" (not to be confused with the slang term for MDMA ) sought by ravers has been described as "a result of when various factors harmonise
19028-444: The vast majority of participants reported increased feelings of empathy that persisted after the therapy sessions. Small doses of MDMA are used by some religious practitioners as an entheogen to enhance prayer or meditation. MDMA has been used as an adjunct to New Age spiritual practices. MDMA has become widely known as ecstasy (shortened "E", "X", or "XTC"), usually referring to its tablet form, although this term may also include
19170-446: The way people react during the songs or throughout the concert itself. Since then the culture has extended to all ages, ranging from kids in their early teens to college students and more. The traditional Rave lights are limited now, but many stores have developed newer, brighter, and more advanced version of lights with a plethora of colours and modes—modes include solid, stribbon, strobe , dops, hyper flash, and other variations. Among
19312-437: Was again taken up by the fashion industry and marketed as "rave fashion" or "festival fashion", now includling all kinds of accessories to create unique looks depending on event. In contrast to this and starting at Berlin techno clubs like Berghain in the 2000s, a strictly black style, partly borrowed from the dark scene , has established itself within parts of the techno scene. Certain rave events such as Sensation also have
19454-426: Was first synthesized in 1912 by Merck chemist Anton Köllisch . It was used to enhance psychotherapy beginning in the 1970s and became popular as a street drug in the 1980s. MDMA is commonly associated with dance parties , raves , and electronic dance music . Tablets sold as ecstasy may be mixed with other substances such as ephedrine , amphetamine , and methamphetamine . In 2016, about 21 million people between
19596-461: Was instrumental in creating a network of clubs, DJs, record collectors and dealers in the UK, and was the first music scene to provide the British charts with records that sold entirely on the strength of club play. A technique employed by northern soul DJs in common with their later counterparts was the sequencing of records to create euphoric highs and lows for the crowd; DJ Laurence 'Larry' Proxton
19738-469: Was instrumental in the development of iconic Belgian techno sounds and anthems. Exodus Productions was arguably the first production company in Canada to throw regular rave style events at the warehouse space known as 23 Hop, located at 318 Richmond Street West in Toronto 's Entertainment District . The first party was held on 31 August 1991. Multiple production companies would quickly follow suit, and
19880-477: Was known for using this method. DJ personalities and their followers involved in the original Northern soul movement went on to become important figures in the house and dance music scenes. During the 1970s and early 1980s until its resurrection, the term was not in vogue, one notable exception being in the lyrics of the song " Drive-In Saturday " by David Bowie (from his 1973 album Aladdin Sane ) which includes
20022-467: Was later part of the title of an electronic music performance event held on 28 January 1967 at London's Roundhouse titled the "Million Volt Light and Sound Rave". The event featured the only known public airing of an experimental sound collage created for the occasion by Paul McCartney of the Beatles – the legendary " Carnival of Light " recording. With the rapid change of British pop culture from
20164-477: Was proposed and introduced. Both terms adopted and used in naming the class of therapeutic drugs for MDMA and related compounds were chosen with the intention of providing some reflection of the reported psychological effects associated with drugs in the classification and distinguishing these compounds from classical psychedelic drugs such as LSD , mescaline , and psilocybin and major stimulants , such as methamphetamine and amphetamine . Chemically, MDMA
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