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106-447: Mount Nebo has two summits: the northern summit reaches 11,933 feet (3,637 m), and the southern summit reaches 11,882 feet (3,622 m). Early surveys placed the southern peak as the highest, but the mountain was resurveyed in the 1970s and the northern peak was found to be higher. It is the highest point of Utah County and is located in the southern part of the county. Mount Nebo is an "ultra", one of 128 ultra-prominent peaks in

212-476: A designer , a contractor , a construction manager , or other advisors); such specialists are normally appointed for their expertise in project delivery and construction management and will help the owner define the project brief , agree on a budget and schedule , liaise with relevant public authorities, and procure materials and the services of other specialists (the supply chain , comprising subcontractors and materials suppliers). Contracts are agreed for

318-495: A plane table in 1551, but it is thought that the instrument was in use earlier as his description is of a developed instrument. Gunter's chain was introduced in 1620 by English mathematician Edmund Gunter . It enabled plots of land to be accurately surveyed and plotted for legal and commercial purposes. Leonard Digges described a theodolite that measured horizontal angles in his book A geometric practice named Pantometria (1571). Joshua Habermel ( Erasmus Habermehl ) created

424-422: A "live" environment (where residents or businesses remain living in or operating on the site) requires particular care, planning and communication. When applicable, a proposed construction project must comply with local land-use planning policies including zoning and building code requirements. A project will normally be assessed (by the 'authority having jurisdiction', AHJ, typically the municipality where

530-445: A GPS on large scale surveys makes them popular for major infrastructure or data gathering projects. One-person robotic-guided total stations allow surveyors to measure without extra workers to aim the telescope or record data. A fast but expensive way to measure large areas is with a helicopter, using a GPS to record the location of the helicopter and a laser scanner to measure the ground. To increase precision, surveyors place beacons on

636-445: A building or other asset that affect safety, including its use, expansion, structural integrity, and fire protection , usually require municipality approval. Depending on the type of project, mortgage bankers , accountants , and cost engineers may participate in creating an overall plan for the financial management of a construction project. The presence of the mortgage banker is highly likely, even in relatively small projects since

742-640: A business to lead both design and construction ( design-build ); or they may directly appoint a designer, contractor and specialist subcontractors ( construction management ). Some forms of procurement emphasize collaborative relationships ( partnering , alliancing) between the client, the contractor, and other stakeholders within a construction project, seeking to ameliorate often highly competitive and adversarial industry practices. DfMA (design for manufacture and assembly) approaches also emphasize early collaboration with manufacturers and suppliers regarding products and components. Construction or refurbishment work in

848-479: A conceptual cost estimate performed by a building estimator . As portions of a project are completed, they may be sold, supplanting one lender or owner for another, while the logistical requirements of having the right trades and materials available for each stage of the building construction project carry forward. Public–private partnerships (PPPs) or private finance initiatives (PFIs) may also be used to help deliver major projects. According to McKinsey in 2019,

954-477: A fixed base station and a second roving antenna. The position of the roving antenna can be tracked. The theodolite , total station and RTK GPS survey remain the primary methods in use. Remote sensing and satellite imagery continue to improve and become cheaper, allowing more commonplace use. Prominent new technologies include three-dimensional (3D) scanning and lidar -based topographical surveys. UAV technology along with photogrammetric image processing

1060-423: A great step forward in the instrument's accuracy. William Gascoigne invented an instrument that used a telescope with an installed crosshair as a target device, in 1640. James Watt developed an optical meter for the measuring of distance in 1771; it measured the parallactic angle from which the distance to a point could be deduced. Dutch mathematician Willebrord Snellius (a.k.a. Snel van Royen) introduced

1166-502: A height above sea level. As the surveying profession grew it created Cartesian coordinate systems to simplify the mathematics for surveys over small parts of the Earth. The simplest coordinate systems assume that the Earth is flat and measure from an arbitrary point, known as a 'datum' (singular form of data). The coordinate system allows easy calculation of the distances and direction between objects over small areas. Large areas distort due to

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1272-433: A known size. It was sometimes used before to the invention of EDM where rough ground made chain measurement impractical. Historically, horizontal angles were measured by using a compass to provide a magnetic bearing or azimuth. Later, more precise scribed discs improved angular resolution. Mounting telescopes with reticles atop the disc allowed more precise sighting (see theodolite ). Levels and calibrated circles allowed

1378-434: A loop pattern or link between two prior reference marks so the surveyor can check their measurements. Many surveys do not calculate positions on the surface of the Earth, but instead, measure the relative positions of objects. However, often the surveyed items need to be compared to outside data, such as boundary lines or previous survey's objects. The oldest way of describing a position is via latitude and longitude, and often

1484-618: A multi frequency phase shift of light waves to find a distance. These instruments eliminated the need for days or weeks of chain measurement by measuring between points kilometers apart in one go. Advances in electronics allowed miniaturization of EDM. In the 1970s the first instruments combining angle and distance measurement appeared, becoming known as total stations . Manufacturers added more equipment by degrees, bringing improvements in accuracy and speed of measurement. Major advances include tilt compensators, data recorders and on-board calculation programs. The first satellite positioning system

1590-411: A plan or map, and the points at the ends of the offset lines could be joined to show the feature. Traversing is a common method of surveying smaller areas. The surveyor starts from an old reference mark or known position and places a network of reference marks covering the survey area. They then measure bearings and distances between the reference marks, and to the target features. Most traverses form

1696-406: A point inside a triangle using the angles cast between the vertices at the unknown point. These could be measured more accurately than bearings of the vertices, which depended on a compass. His work established the idea of surveying a primary network of control points, and locating subsidiary points inside the primary network later. Between 1733 and 1740, Jacques Cassini and his son César undertook

1802-478: A profession. They established the basic measurements under which the Roman Empire was divided, such as a tax register of conquered lands (300 AD). Roman surveyors were known as Gromatici . In medieval Europe, beating the bounds maintained the boundaries of a village or parish. This was the practice of gathering a group of residents and walking around the parish or village to establish a communal memory of

1908-428: A reflector or prism to return the light pulses used for distance measurements. They are fully robotic, and can even e-mail point data to a remote computer and connect to satellite positioning systems , such as Global Positioning System . Real Time Kinematic GPS systems have significantly increased the speed of surveying, and they are now horizontally accurate to within 1 cm ± 1 ppm in real-time, while vertically it

2014-433: A rule is inapplicable (the bridge design will not cause a collapse), or that the custom is no longer needed (acceptance of live-work spaces has grown in the community). During the construction of a building, a municipal building inspector usually inspects the ongoing work periodically to ensure that construction adheres to the approved plans and the local building code. Once construction is complete, any later changes made to

2120-476: A star is determined, the bearing can be transferred to a reference point on Earth. The point can then be used as a base for further observations. Survey-accurate astronomic positions were difficult to observe and calculate and so tended to be a base off which many other measurements were made. Since the advent of the GPS system, astronomic observations are rare as GPS allows adequate positions to be determined over most of

2226-495: A theodolite with a compass and tripod in 1576. Johnathon Sission was the first to incorporate a telescope on a theodolite in 1725. In the 18th century, modern techniques and instruments for surveying began to be used. Jesse Ramsden introduced the first precision theodolite in 1787. It was an instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical planes. He created his great theodolite using an accurate dividing engine of his own design. Ramsden's theodolite represented

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2332-593: A time component. Before EDM (Electronic Distance Measurement) laser devices, distances were measured using a variety of means. In pre-colonial America Natives would use the "bow shot" as a distance reference ("as far as an arrow can slung out of a bow", or "flights of a Cherokee long bow"). Europeans used chains with links of a known length such as a Gunter's chain , or measuring tapes made of steel or invar . To measure horizontal distances, these chains or tapes were pulled taut to reduce sagging and slack. The distance had to be adjusted for heat expansion. Attempts to hold

2438-410: Is a verb : the act of building, and the noun is construction: how something is built or the nature of its structure. In its most widely used context, construction covers the processes involved in delivering buildings , infrastructure , industrial facilities, and associated activities through to the end of their life. It typically starts with planning , financing , and design that continues until

2544-474: Is a staple of contemporary land surveying. Typically, much if not all of the drafting and some of the designing for plans and plats of the surveyed property is done by the surveyor, and nearly everyone working in the area of drafting today (2021) utilizes CAD software and hardware both on PC, and more and more in newer generation data collectors in the field as well. Other computer platforms and tools commonly used today by surveyors are offered online by

2650-399: Is a term used when referring to moving the level to take an elevation shot from a different location. To "turn" the level, one must first take a reading and record the elevation of the point the rod is located on. While the rod is being kept in exactly the same location, the level is moved to a new location where the rod is still visible. A reading is taken from the new location of the level and

2756-400: Is also appearing. The main surveying instruments in use around the world are the theodolite , measuring tape , total station , 3D scanners , GPS / GNSS , level and rod . Most instruments screw onto a tripod when in use. Tape measures are often used for measurement of smaller distances. 3D scanners and various forms of aerial imagery are also used. The theodolite is an instrument for

2862-412: Is an alternate method of determining the position of objects, and was often used to measure imprecise features such as riverbanks. The surveyor would mark and measure two known positions on the ground roughly parallel to the feature, and mark out a baseline between them. At regular intervals, a distance was measured at right angles from the first line to the feature. The measurements could then be plotted on

2968-505: Is because divergent conditions further away from the base reduce accuracy. Surveying instruments have characteristics that make them suitable for certain uses. Theodolites and levels are often used by constructors rather than surveyors in first world countries. The constructor can perform simple survey tasks using a relatively cheap instrument. Total stations are workhorses for many professional surveyors because they are versatile and reliable in all conditions. The productivity improvements from

3074-518: Is called a land surveyor . Surveyors work with elements of geodesy , geometry , trigonometry , regression analysis , physics , engineering, metrology , programming languages , and the law. They use equipment, such as total stations , robotic total stations, theodolites , GNSS receivers, retroreflectors , 3D scanners , lidar sensors, radios, inclinometer , handheld tablets, optical and digital levels , subsurface locators, drones, GIS , and surveying software. Surveying has been an element in

3180-585: Is currently about half of that to within 2 cm ± 2 ppm. GPS surveying differs from other GPS uses in the equipment and methods used. Static GPS uses two receivers placed in position for a considerable length of time. The long span of time lets the receiver compare measurements as the satellites orbit. The changes as the satellites orbit also provide the measurement network with well conditioned geometry. This produces an accurate baseline that can be over 20 km long. RTK surveying uses one static antenna and one roving antenna. The static antenna tracks changes in

3286-405: Is the discipline of safely and efficiently tearing down buildings and other artificial structures . Demolition contrasts with deconstruction , which involves taking a building apart while carefully preserving valuable elements for reuse purposes ( recycling – see also circular economy ). The output of the global construction industry was worth an estimated $ 10.8 trillion in 2017, and in 2018

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3392-937: Is the process of adding structures to areas of land, also known as real property sites. Typically, a project is instigated by or with the owner of the property (who may be an individual or an organisation); occasionally, land may be compulsorily purchased from the owner for public use. Residential construction may be undertaken by individual land-owners ( self-built ), by specialist housebuilders , by property developers , by general contractors , or by providers of public or social housing (e.g.: local authorities, housing associations ). Where local zoning or planning policies allow, mixed-use developments may comprise both residential and non-residential construction (e.g.: retail, leisure, offices, public buildings, etc.). Residential construction practices, technologies , and resources must conform to local building authority's regulations and codes of practice . Materials readily available in

3498-413: Is the second largest construction market with a 2018 output of $ 1.581 trillion. Construction is a major source of employment in most countries; high reliance on small businesses, and under-representation of women are common traits. For example: According to McKinsey research, productivity growth per worker in construction has lagged behind many other industries across different countries including in

3604-432: Is with an altimeter  using air pressure to find the height. When more precise measurements are needed, means like precise levels (also known as differential leveling) are used. When precise leveling, a series of measurements between two points are taken using an instrument and a measuring rod. Differences in height between the measurements are added and subtracted in a series to get the net difference in elevation between

3710-562: The Bronze Age , a class of professional craftsmen , like bricklayers and carpenters , appeared. Occasionally, slaves were used for construction work. In the Middle Ages , the artisan craftsmen were organized into guilds . In the 19th century, steam-powered machinery appeared, and later, diesel- and electric-powered vehicles such as cranes , excavators and bulldozers . Fast-track construction has been increasingly popular in

3816-713: The Great Pyramid of Giza , built c.  2700 BC , affirm the Egyptians' command of surveying. The groma instrument may have originated in Mesopotamia (early 1st millennium BC). The prehistoric monument at Stonehenge ( c.  2500 BC ) was set out by prehistoric surveyors using peg and rope geometry. The mathematician Liu Hui described ways of measuring distant objects in his work Haidao Suanjing or The Sea Island Mathematical Manual , published in 263 AD. The Romans recognized land surveying as

3922-509: The Principal Triangulation of Britain . The first Ramsden theodolite was built for this survey. The survey was finally completed in 1853. The Great Trigonometric Survey of India began in 1801. The Indian survey had an enormous scientific impact. It was responsible for one of the first accurate measurements of a section of an arc of longitude, and for measurements of the geodesic anomaly. It named and mapped Mount Everest and

4028-621: The Torrens system in South Australia in 1858. Torrens intended to simplify land transactions and provide reliable titles via a centralized register of land. The Torrens system was adopted in several other nations of the English-speaking world. Surveying became increasingly important with the arrival of railroads in the 1800s. Surveying was necessary so that railroads could plan technologically and financially viable routes. At

4134-799: The U.S. Federal Government and other governments' survey agencies, such as the National Geodetic Survey and the CORS network, to get automated corrections and conversions for collected GPS data, and the data coordinate systems themselves. Surveyors determine the position of objects by measuring angles and distances. The factors that can affect the accuracy of their observations are also measured. They then use this data to create vectors, bearings, coordinates, elevations, areas, volumes, plans and maps. Measurements are often split into horizontal and vertical components to simplify calculation. GPS and astronomic measurements also need measurement of

4240-606: The United States and in European countries. In the United States, construction productivity per worker has declined by half since the 1960s. The twenty-five largest countries in the world by construction GVA (2018) Some workers may be engaged in manual labour as unskilled or semi-skilled workers; they may be skilled tradespeople; or they may be supervisory or managerial personnel. Under safety legislation in

4346-474: The architect , engineer or builder acts for the client as the project coordinator. They design the works, prepare specifications and design deliverables (models, drawings, etc.), administer the contract, tender the works, and manage the works from inception to completion. In parallel, there are direct contractual links between the client and the main contractor, who, in turn, has direct contractual relationships with subcontractors. The arrangement continues until

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4452-419: The distances and angles between them. These points are usually on the surface of the Earth, and they are often used to establish maps and boundaries for ownership , locations, such as the designated positions of structural components for construction or the surface location of subsurface features, or other purposes required by government or civil law, such as property sales. A professional in land surveying

4558-414: The type of building , non-residential building construction can be procured by a wide range of private and public organisations, including local authorities, educational and religious bodies, transport undertakings, retailers, hoteliers, property developers, financial institutions and other private companies. Most construction in these sectors is undertaken by general contractors . Civil engineering covers

4664-581: The "vast majority of large construction projects go over budget and take 20% longer than expected". A construction project is a complex net of construction contracts and other legal obligations, each of which all parties must carefully consider. A contract is the exchange of a set of obligations between two or more parties, and provides structures to manage issues. For example, construction delays can be costly, so construction contracts set out clear expectations and clear paths to manage delays. Poorly drafted contracts can lead to confusion and costly disputes. At

4770-461: The 21st century. Some estimates suggest that 40% of construction projects are now fast-track construction. Broadly, there are three sectors of construction: buildings, infrastructure and industrial: The industry can also be classified into sectors or markets. For example, Engineering News-Record ( ENR ), a US-based construction trade magazine, has compiled and reported data about the size of design and construction contractors. In 2014, it split

4876-447: The 21st-century introduction of building information modeling (BIM) processes has involved the use of computer-generated models that can be used in their own right or to generate drawings and other visualisations as well as capturing non-geometric data about building components and systems. On some projects, work on-site will not start until design work is largely complete; on others, some design work may be undertaken concurrently with

4982-460: The Earth's curvature. North is often defined as true north at the datum. Construction This is an accepted version of this page Construction is a general term meaning the art and science of forming objects , systems , or organizations . It comes from the Latin word constructio (from com- "together" and struere "to pile up") and Old French construction . To 'construct'

5088-540: The Mount Nebo Wilderness, climbing to over 9,000 feet before rejoining the interstate at Nephi . The route features panoramic views of Mount Nebo, the Utah Valley, and Utah Lake far below. There are numerous trailheads along the route for the hiking enthusiast, including a short walk to the "Devil's Kitchen", an area that has been described as a "mini Bryce Canyon ". There is no weather station at

5194-599: The United Kingdom, for example, construction workers are defined as people "who work for or under the control of a contractor on a construction site"; in Canada, this can include people whose work includes ensuring conformance with building codes and regulations, and those who supervise other workers. Laborers comprise a large grouping in most national construction industries. In the United States, for example, in May 2021

5300-399: The United States having more than 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) of topographic prominence . The mountain is typically partially or completely covered in snow from mid-October until July. Nearby towns include Mona (closest), Payson , Nephi , and Provo . A substantial trail leads to the south summit, accessible from starting points on the east or west of the mountain. Another trail accesses

5406-413: The area generally dictate the construction materials used (e.g.: brick versus stone versus timber ). Costs of construction on a per square meter (or per square foot) basis for houses can vary dramatically based on site conditions, access routes, local regulations, economies of scale (custom-designed homes are often more expensive to build) and the availability of skilled tradespeople. Depending upon

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5512-554: The asset as an advanced technological system requiring close integration of many sub-systems and their individual components, including sustainability. For buildings, building engineering is an emerging discipline that attempts to meet this new challenge. Traditionally, design has involved the production of sketches , architectural and engineering drawings , and specifications . Until the late 20th century, drawings were largely hand- drafted ; adoption of computer-aided design (CAD) technologies then improved design productivity, while

5618-415: The asset is built and ready for use. Construction also covers repairs and maintenance work, any works to expand, extend and improve the asset, and its eventual demolition , dismantling or decommissioning . The construction industry contributes significantly to many countries' gross domestic products ( GDP ). Global expenditure on construction activities was about $ 4 trillion in 2012. In 2022, expenditure on

5724-438: The basis for dividing the western territories into sections to allow the sale of land. The PLSS divided states into township grids which were further divided into sections and fractions of sections. Napoleon Bonaparte founded continental Europe 's first cadastre in 1808. This gathered data on the number of parcels of land, their value, land usage, and names. This system soon spread around Europe. Robert Torrens introduced

5830-457: The bearing from every vertex in a figure, a surveyor can measure around the figure. The final observation will be between the two points first observed, except with a 180° difference. This is called a close . If the first and last bearings are different, this shows the error in the survey, called the angular misclose . The surveyor can use this information to prove that the work meets the expected standards. The simplest method for measuring height

5936-468: The beginning of the century, surveyors had improved the older chains and ropes, but they still faced the problem of accurate measurement of long distances. Trevor Lloyd Wadley developed the Tellurometer during the 1950s. It measures long distances using two microwave transmitter/receivers. During the late 1950s Geodimeter introduced electronic distance measurement (EDM) equipment. EDM units use

6042-528: The boundaries. Young boys were included to ensure the memory lasted as long as possible. In England, William the Conqueror commissioned the Domesday Book in 1086. It recorded the names of all the land owners, the area of land they owned, the quality of the land, and specific information of the area's content and inhabitants. It did not include maps showing exact locations. Abel Foullon described

6148-419: The budget on the job, and a construction manager , design engineer , construction engineer or architect supervises it. Those involved with the design and execution must consider zoning requirements and legal issues, environmental impact of the project, scheduling , budgeting and bidding , construction site safety , availability and transportation of building materials , logistics, and inconvenience to

6254-447: The client enters into separate contracts with the designer (architect or engineer), a construction manager , and individual trade contractors . The client takes on the contractual role, while the construction or project manager provides the active role of managing the separate trade contracts, and ensuring that they complete all work smoothly and effectively together. This approach is often used to speed up procurement processes, to allow

6360-410: The client greater flexibility in design variation throughout the contract, to enable the appointment of individual work contractors, to separate contractual responsibility on each individual throughout the contract, and to provide greater client control. In the industrialized world, construction usually involves the translation of designs into reality. Most commonly (i.e.: in a design-bid-build project),

6466-533: The construction industry exceeded $ 11 trillion a year, equivalent to about 13 percent of global GDP . This spending was forecasted to rise to around $ 14.8 trillion in 2030. The construction industry promotes economic development and brings many non-monetary benefits to many countries, but it is one of the most hazardous industries. For example, about 20% (1,061) of US industry fatalities in 2019 happened in construction. The first huts and shelters were constructed by hand or with simple tools. As cities grew during

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6572-675: The construction sector employed just over 7.5 million people, of whom just over 820,000 were laborers, while 573,000 were carpenters , 508,000 were electricians , 258,000 were equipment operators and 230,000 were construction managers. Like most business sectors, there is also substantial white-collar employment in construction – 681,000 US workers were recorded by the United States Department of Labor as in 'office and administrative support occupations' in May 2021. Large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. A project manager normally manages

6678-750: The data into nine market segments: transportation, petroleum , buildings, power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewage/waste, telecom , hazardous waste , and a tenth category for other projects. ENR used data on transportation, sewage, hazardous waste and water to rank firms as heavy contractors. The Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification System classify companies that perform or engage in construction into three subsectors: building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors. There are also categories for professional services firms (e.g., engineering , architecture , surveying , project management ). Building construction

6784-426: The delivery of services by all businesses, alongside other detailed plans aimed at ensuring legal, timely, on-budget and safe delivery of the specified works. Design, finance, and legal aspects overlap and interrelate. The design must be not only structurally sound and appropriate for the use and location, but must also be financially possible to build, and legal to use. The financial structure must be adequate to build

6890-440: The design provided and must pay amounts that are legally owed. Legal structures integrate design with other activities and enforce financial and other construction processes. These processes also affect procurement strategies. Clients may, for example, appoint a business to design the project, after which a competitive process is undertaken to appoint a lead contractor to construct the asset ( design–bid–build ); they may appoint

6996-451: The design team is employed by (i.e. in contract with) the property owner. Depending upon the type of project, a design team may include architects , civil engineers , mechanical engineers , electrical engineers , structural engineers , fire protection engineers , planning consultants , architectural consultants, and archaeological consultants. A 'lead designer' will normally be identified to help coordinate different disciplinary inputs to

7102-821: The design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment , including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, tunnels, airports, water and sewerage systems, pipelines, and railways. Some general contractors have expertise in civil engineering; civil engineering contractors are firms dedicated to work in this sector, and may specialise in particular types of infrastructure. Industrial construction includes offshore construction (mainly of energy installations: oil and gas platforms , wind power ), mining and quarrying , refineries , breweries , distilleries and other processing plants, power stations , steel mills , warehouses and factories . Some construction projects are small renovations or repair jobs, like repainting or fixing leaks, where

7208-443: The desire to prevent indisputably bad phenomena, e.g. explosions or bridge collapses. Other legal requirements come from malum prohibitum considerations, or factors that are a matter of custom or expectation, such as isolating businesses from a business district or residences from a residential district. An attorney may seek changes or exemptions in the law that governs the land where the building will be built, either by arguing that

7314-405: The development of the human environment since the beginning of recorded history . It is used in the planning and execution of most forms of construction . It is also used in transportation, communications, mapping, and the definition of legal boundaries for land ownership. It is an important tool for research in many other scientific disciplines. The International Federation of Surveyors defines

7420-562: The early days of surveying, this was the primary method of determining accurate positions of objects for topographic maps of large areas. A surveyor first needs to know the horizontal distance between two of the objects, known as the baseline . Then the heights, distances and angular position of other objects can be derived, as long as they are visible from one of the original objects. High-accuracy transits or theodolites were used, and angle measurements were repeated for increased accuracy. See also Triangulation in three dimensions . Offsetting

7526-535: The early stages of on-site activity (for example, work on a building's foundations may commence while designers are still working on the detailed designs of the building's internal spaces). Some projects may include elements that are designed for off-site construction (see also prefabrication and modular building ) and are then delivered to the site ready for erection, installation or assembly. Once contractors and other relevant professionals have been appointed and designs are sufficiently advanced, work may commence on

7632-412: The first feature of the permanent structure has been put in place, such as pile driving, or the pouring of slabs or footings. Commissioning is the process of verifying that all subsystems of a new building (or other assets) work as intended to achieve the owner's project requirements and as designed by the project's architects and engineers. A period after handover (or practical completion) during which

7738-544: The first prototype satellites of the Global Positioning System (GPS) in 1978. GPS used a larger constellation of satellites and improved signal transmission, thus improving accuracy. Early GPS observations required several hours of observations by a static receiver to reach survey accuracy requirements. Later improvements to both satellites and receivers allowed for Real Time Kinematic (RTK) surveying. RTK surveys provide high-accuracy measurements by using

7844-467: The first triangulation of France. They included a re-surveying of the meridian arc , leading to the publication in 1745 of the first map of France constructed on rigorous principles. By this time triangulation methods were well established for local map-making. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that detailed triangulation network surveys mapped whole countries. In 1784, a team from General William Roy 's Ordnance Survey of Great Britain began

7950-515: The function of surveying as follows: A surveyor is a professional person with the academic qualifications and technical expertise to conduct one, or more, of the following activities; Surveying has occurred since humans built the first large structures. In ancient Egypt , a rope stretcher would use simple geometry to re-establish boundaries after the annual floods of the Nile River . The almost perfect squareness and north–south orientation of

8056-748: The ground (about 20 km (12 mi) apart). This method reaches precisions between 5–40 cm (depending on flight height). Surveyors use ancillary equipment such as tripods and instrument stands; staves and beacons used for sighting purposes; PPE ; vegetation clearing equipment; digging implements for finding survey markers buried over time; hammers for placements of markers in various surfaces and structures; and portable radios for communication over long lines of sight. Land surveyors, construction professionals, geomatics engineers and civil engineers using total station , GPS , 3D scanners, and other collector data use land surveying software to increase efficiency, accuracy, and productivity. Land Surveying Software

8162-509: The ground to large beacons that can be seen from long distances. The surveyors can set up their instruments in this position and measure to nearby objects. Sometimes a tall, distinctive feature such as a steeple or radio aerial has its position calculated as a reference point that angles can be measured against. Triangulation is a method of horizontal location favoured in the days before EDM and GPS measurement. It can determine distances, elevations and directions between distant objects. Since

8268-400: The height difference is used to find the new elevation of the level gun, which is why this method is referred to as differential levelling . This is repeated until the series of measurements is completed. The level must be horizontal to get a valid measurement. Because of this, if the horizontal crosshair of the instrument is lower than the base of the rod, the surveyor will not be able to sight

8374-464: The measurement of angles. It uses two separate circles , protractors or alidades to measure angles in the horizontal and the vertical plane. A telescope mounted on trunnions is aligned vertically with the target object. The whole upper section rotates for horizontal alignment. The vertical circle measures the angle that the telescope makes against the vertical, known as the zenith angle. The horizontal circle uses an upper and lower plate. When beginning

8480-409: The measurement of vertical angles. Verniers allowed measurement to a fraction of a degree, such as with a turn-of-the-century transit . The plane table provided a graphical method of recording and measuring angles, which reduced the amount of mathematics required. In 1829 Francis Ronalds invented a reflecting instrument for recording angles graphically by modifying the octant . By observing

8586-424: The measuring instrument level would also be made. When measuring up a slope, the surveyor might have to "break" (break chain) the measurement- use an increment less than the total length of the chain. Perambulators , or measuring wheels, were used to measure longer distances but not to a high level of accuracy. Tacheometry is the science of measuring distances by measuring the angle between two ends of an object with

8692-411: The modern systematic use of triangulation . In 1615 he surveyed the distance from Alkmaar to Breda , approximately 72 miles (116 km). He underestimated this distance by 3.5%. The survey was a chain of quadrangles containing 33 triangles in all. Snell showed how planar formulae could be corrected to allow for the curvature of the Earth . He also showed how to resect , or calculate, the position of

8798-498: The north summit, starting northeast of the mountain. A "bench trail" runs along the mountain's east side from north to south at roughly 9,000 feet elevation. Although strenuous, all of these trails are popular with hikers; many are dangerous places for horseback riders. One old-time local rider warns: "There's dead horses in every canyon on that mountain!" The Mount Nebo Scenic Byway is a federally designated National Scenic Byway which departs I-15 at Payson and travels south through

8904-672: The other Himalayan peaks. Surveying became a professional occupation in high demand at the turn of the 19th century with the onset of the Industrial Revolution . The profession developed more accurate instruments to aid its work. Industrial infrastructure projects used surveyors to lay out canals , roads and rail. In the US, the Land Ordinance of 1785 created the Public Land Survey System . It formed

9010-486: The overall budget is adequate, presenting a temporary issue. Cost overruns with government projects have occurred when the contractor identified change orders or project changes that increased costs, which are not subject to competition from other firms as they have already been eliminated from consideration after the initial bid. Fraud is also an issue of growing significance within construction. Large projects can involve highly complex financial plans and often start with

9116-441: The overall design. This may be aided by integration of previously separate disciplines (often undertaken by separate firms) into multi-disciplinary firms with experts from all related fields, or by firms establishing relationships to support design-build processes. The increasing complexity of construction projects creates the need for design professionals trained in all phases of a project's life-cycle and develop an appreciation of

9222-409: The owner may act as designer, paymaster and laborer for the entire project. However, more complex or ambitious projects usually require additional multi-disciplinary expertise and manpower, so the owner may commission one or more specialist businesses to undertake detailed planning, design, construction and handover of the work. Often the owner will appoint one business to oversee the project (this may be

9328-405: The owner may identify any shortcomings in relation to the building specification ('defects'), with a view to the contractor correcting the defect. Maintenance involves functional checks, servicing, repairing or replacing of necessary devices, equipment, machinery , building infrastructure, and supporting utilities in industrial, business, governmental, and residential installations. Demolition

9434-478: The owner's equity in the property is the most obvious source of funding for a building project. Accountants act to study the expected monetary flow over the life of the project and to monitor the payouts throughout the process. Professionals including cost engineers, estimators and quantity surveyors apply expertise to relate the work and materials involved to a proper valuation. Financial planning ensures adequate safeguards and contingency plans are in place before

9540-414: The project brief and then selects a preferred supplier. Often this will be a consortium involving a design firm and a contractor (sometimes more than one of each). In the United States, departments of transportation usually use design-build contracts as a way of progressing projects where states lack the skills or resources, particularly for very large projects. In a construction management arrangement,

9646-435: The project is ready for handover. Design-build became more common from the late 20th century, and involves the client contracting a single entity to provide design and construction. In some cases, the design-build package can also include finding the site, arranging funding and applying for all necessary statutory consents. Typically, the client invites several Design & Build (D&B) contractors to submit proposals to meet

9752-405: The project is started, and ensures that the plan is properly executed over the life of the project. Construction projects can suffer from preventable financial problems. Underbids happen when builders ask for too little money to complete the project. Cash flow problems exist when the present amount of funding cannot cover the current costs for labour and materials; such problems may arise even when

9858-528: The project site. Typically, a construction site will include a secure perimeter to restrict unauthorised access, site access control points, office and welfare accommodation for personnel from the main contractor and other firms involved in the project team, and storage areas for materials, machinery and equipment. According to the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture and Construction's definition, construction may be said to have started when

9964-745: The project will be located) for its potential impacts on neighbouring properties, and upon existing infrastructure (transportation, social infrastructure, and utilities including water supply, sewerage, electricity, telecommunications, etc.). Data may be gathered through site analysis , site surveys and geotechnical investigations . Construction normally cannot start until planning permission has been granted, and may require preparatory work to ensure relevant infrastructure has been upgraded before building work can commence. Preparatory works will also include surveys of existing utility lines to avoid damage-causing outages and other hazardous situations. Some legal requirements come from malum in se considerations, or

10070-642: The public, including those caused by construction delays . Some models and policy-making organisations promote the engagement of local labour in construction projects as a means of tackling social exclusion and addressing skill shortages. In the UK, the Joseph Rowntree Foundation reported in 2000 on 25 projects which had aimed to offer training and employment opportunities for locally based school leavers and unemployed people. The Foundation published "a good practice resource book" in this regard at

10176-477: The rod and get a reading. The rod can usually be raised up to 25 feet (7.6 m) high, allowing the level to be set much higher than the base of the rod. The primary way of determining one's position on the Earth's surface when no known positions are nearby is by astronomic observations. Observations to the Sun, Moon and stars could all be made using navigational techniques. Once the instrument's position and bearing to

10282-662: The same time. Use of local labour and local materials were specified for the construction of the Danish Storebaelt bridge , but there were legal issues which were challenged in court and addressed by the European Court of Justice in 1993. The court held that a contract condition requiring use of local labour and local materials was incompatible with EU treaty principles . Later UK guidance noted that social and employment clauses, where used, must be compatible with relevant EU regulation. Employment of local labour

10388-422: The satellite positions and atmospheric conditions. The surveyor uses the roving antenna to measure the points needed for the survey. The two antennas use a radio link that allows the static antenna to send corrections to the roving antenna. The roving antenna then applies those corrections to the GPS signals it is receiving to calculate its own position. RTK surveying covers smaller distances than static methods. This

10494-473: The start of a project, legal advisors seek to identify ambiguities and other potential sources of trouble in the contract structures, and to present options for preventing problems. During projects, they work to avoid and resolve conflicts that arise. In each case, the lawyer facilitates an exchange of obligations that matches the reality of the project. Design-bid-build is the most common and well-established method of construction procurement. In this arrangement,

10600-506: The summit, but this climate table contains interpolated data for an area around the summit. Mount Nebo has a subalpine climate ( Köppen Dfc ). This article about a location in Utah is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Surveying Surveying or land surveying is the technique, profession, art, and science of determining the terrestrial two-dimensional or three-dimensional positions of points and

10706-423: The surface of the Earth. Few survey positions are derived from the first principles. Instead, most surveys points are measured relative to previously measured points. This forms a reference or control network where each point can be used by a surveyor to determine their own position when beginning a new survey. Survey points are usually marked on the earth's surface by objects ranging from small nails driven into

10812-406: The survey, the surveyor points the instrument in a known direction (bearing), and clamps the lower plate in place. The instrument can then rotate to measure the bearing to other objects. If no bearing is known or direct angle measurement is wanted, the instrument can be set to zero during the initial sight. It will then read the angle between the initial object, the theodolite itself, and the item that

10918-536: The telescope aligns with. The gyrotheodolite is a form of theodolite that uses a gyroscope to orient itself in the absence of reference marks. It is used in underground applications. The total station is a development of the theodolite with an electronic distance measurement device (EDM). A total station can be used for leveling when set to the horizontal plane. Since their introduction, total stations have shifted from optical-mechanical to fully electronic devices. Modern top-of-the-line total stations no longer need

11024-459: The two endpoints. With the Global Positioning System (GPS), elevation can be measured with satellite receivers. Usually, GPS is somewhat less accurate than traditional precise leveling, but may be similar over long distances. When using an optical level, the endpoint may be out of the effective range of the instrument. There may be obstructions or large changes of elevation between the endpoints. In these situations, extra setups are needed. Turning

11130-455: Was forecast to rise to $ 12.9 trillion by 2022, and to around $ 14.8 trillion in 2030. As a sector, construction accounts for more than 10% of global GDP (in developed countries , construction comprises 6–9% of GDP), and employs around 7% of the total employed workforce around the globe (accounting for over 273 million full- and part-time jobs in 2014). Since 2010, China has been the world's largest single construction market. The United States

11236-504: Was the US Navy TRANSIT system . The first successful launch took place in 1960. The system's main purpose was to provide position information to Polaris missile submarines. Surveyors found they could use field receivers to determine the location of a point. Sparse satellite cover and large equipment made observations laborious and inaccurate. The main use was establishing benchmarks in remote locations. The US Air Force launched

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