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94-397: Models can be divided into physical models (e.g. a ship model or a fashion model) and abstract models (e.g. a set of mathematical equations describing the workings of the atmosphere for the purpose of weather forecasting). Abstract or conceptual models are central to philosophy of science . In scholarly research and applied science, a model should not be confused with a theory : while

188-461: A conceptual model ) is a smaller or larger physical representation of an object , person or system . The object being modelled may be small (e.g., an atom ) or large (e.g., the Solar System ) or life-size (e.g., a fashion model displaying clothes for similarly-built potential customers). The geometry of the model and the object it represents are often similar in the sense that one is

282-413: A rescaling of the other. However, in many cases the similarity is only approximate or even intentionally distorted. Sometimes the distortion is systematic, e.g., a fixed scale horizontally and a larger fixed scale vertically when modelling topography to enhance a region's mountains. An architectural model permits visualization of internal relationships within the structure or external relationships of

376-688: A wind tunnel or in free flight. Models of scale large enough to permit piloting may be used for testing of a proposed design. Architecture firms usually employ model makers or contract model making firms to make models of projects to sell their designs to builders and investors. These models are traditionally hand-made, but advances in technology have turned the industry into a very high tech process than can involve Class IV laser cutters , five-axis CNC machines as well as rapid prototyping or 3D printing . Typical scales are 1:12, 1:24, 1:48, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200, 1:500, etc. With elements similar to miniature wargaming , building models and architectural models ,

470-446: A (square rigged) model in 1/8" scale, then: Although this technique allows you to judge the approximate length of a proposed model from its true footage, only square riggers will fit the approximate height and beam by the above factors. To approximate these dimensions on other craft, scale the drawings from which you found the length and arrive at her mast heights and beam. Model ships have been used for war gaming since antiquity, but

564-808: A 1/48 scale model of the USS ; Missouri , which is on display at the Washington Navy Yard museum, required an estimated 77,000 man hours to construct. Commercial ship models are usually built to rigorous standards; for example the US Navy has an exacting set of specifications regarding the use of materials and methods with the aim of ensuring a model "lifespan" of one hundred years. Some hobbyists build and operate scale model ships utilizing radio control equipment. These can range from small models that can be operated in aquariums to vessels capable of navigating large bodies of water. Further expanding

658-633: A century, in particular in towing tanks. Manned models are small scale models that can carry and be handled by at least one person on an open expanse of water. They must behave just like real ships, giving the shiphandler the same sensations. Physical conditions such as wind, currents, waves, water depths, channels, and berths must be reproduced realistically. Manned models are used for research (e.g. ship behaviour), engineering (e.g. port layout) and for training in shiphandling (e.g. maritime pilots , masters and officers ). They are usually at 1:25 scale. Models, and their constituent parts, can be built out of

752-604: A color scheme that did not actually exist. This is commonly referred to as 'What-if' or 'Alternative' modeling, and the most common theme is 'Luftwaffe 1946' or 'Luftwaffe '46'. This theme stems from the idea of modeling German secret projects that never saw the light of day due to the close of World War II. This concept has been extended to include British, Russian, and US experimental projects that never made it into production. Flying model aircraft are built for aerodynamic research and for recreation ( aeromodeling ). Recreational models are often made to resemble some real type. However

846-457: A few even larger. The early plastic model kit producers such as Airfix , Revell , Frog and Pyro have since been joined by Imai , Tamiya , Hasegawa , Skywave/Pit-Road, Trumpeter , Dragon Models Limited and many others in producing a wide array of model subjects. The plastic model kit market has shifted over the years to a focus on adult hobbyists willing to pay for more elaborate, higher quality kits. Another recent development has been

940-423: A field of study for thousands of years and many of the great problems have been solved using analytical and numerical techniques, many problems are still too complicated to understand in an analytical manner or the current numerical techniques lack real world confirmation. When this is the case, for example a complicated reinforced concrete beam-column-slab interaction problem, scale models can be constructed observing

1034-409: A hatch measures 1" wide on the draft. You are building in 3/16" scale. Measuring the hatch in metric, you measure 25 mm. T he conversion factor for 1/4" to 3/16', according to the conversion table is .75. So 25 mm x .75 = 18.75 mm, or about 19 mm. That is the hatch size in 3/16" scale. Conversion is a fairly simple task once you start measuring in metric and converting according to

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1128-567: A high degree of surface detail, and electrical features such as interior lighting and animation. For Star Trek: The Original Series , a 33-inch (0.84 m) pre-production model of the Starship Enterprise was created in December 1964, mostly of pine, with Plexiglass and brass details, at a cost of $ 600. This was followed by a 135.5-inch (3.44 m) production model constructed from plaster, sheet metal, and wood, at ten times

1222-513: A major role in promoting ship modelling, offering enthusiasts the opportunity to show off their work and share techniques. Internet sites such as Modelwarships.com , Steelnavy.com , or Model Shipwrights are oriented to plastic model ship builders, while others such as Hyperscale focus largely on aircraft or other subjects can regularly feature plastic ship models as well. The most common materials used for ship models are: Wooden ship model hulls can be constructed in several ways. The simplest

1316-445: A measurement. The equation for converting a measurement in one scale to that of another scale is D2 = D1 x F where: Example: A yardarm is 6" long in 3/16" scale. Find its length in 1/8" scale. It is easier to make measurements in the metric system and then multiply them by the scale conversion factor. Scales are expressed in fractional inches, but fractions themselves are harder to work with than metric measurements. For example,

1410-420: A model seeks only to represent reality with the purpose of better understanding or predicting the world, a theory is more ambitious in that it claims to be an explanation of reality. As a noun, model has specific meanings in certain fields, derived from its original meaning of "structural design or layout ": A physical model (most commonly referred to simply as a model but in this context distinguished from

1504-740: A plan-relief is a means of geographical representation in relief as a scale model for military use, to visualize building projects on fortifications or campaigns involving fortifications. In the first half of the 20th century, navies used hand-made models of warships for identification and instruction in a variety of scales. That of 1:500 was called "teacher scale." Besides models made in 1:1200 and 1:2400 scales, there were also ones made to 1:2000 and 1:5000. Some, made in Britain , were labelled "1 inch to 110 feet", which would be 1:1320 scale, but are not necessarily accurate. Many research workers, hydraulics specialists and engineers have used scale models for over

1598-541: A projection of the keel beyond the stem-post at both ends. Despite appearances, these projections are not rams. Because the model is depicting a fishing boat, there would be no need for rams. This model in particular has helped archaeologists understand that not all keel projections in depictions of boats during this time are necessarily rams. Instead, keel projections on depictions of Bronze Age ships are explained as cut-waters or as beaching protection. Phoenician ship models also provide archaeologists information regarding

1692-677: A prototype gauge of 2 ft ( 610 mm ). The most popular scale to go with a given gauge was often arrived at through the following roundabout process: German artisans would take strips of metal of standard metric size to construct their products from blueprints dimensioned in inches. "Four mm to the foot" yielded the 1:76.2 size of the British "OO scale", which is anomalously used on the standard HO/OO scale (16.5 mm gauge from 3.5 mm/foot scale) tracks, because early electric motors weren't available commercially in smaller sizes. Today, most scale sizes are internationally standardized, with

1786-578: A scale of 1:43.5. Later, the European authority of model railroad firms MOROP declared that the "O" gauge (still 32 mm) must use the scale of 1:45, to allow wheel, tire , and splasher clearance for smaller than realistic curved sections. N scale trains were first commercially produced at 1:160 scale in 1962 by the Arnold company of Nuremberg . This standard size was imported to the US by firms such as

1880-406: A series of high quality injection molded Star Wars kits in 1:72 , and this range is supplemented by resin kits from Fantastic Plastic . Although the British scale for 0 gauge was first used for model cars made of rectilinear and circular parts, it was the origin of the European scale for cast or injection molded model cars. MOROP's specification of 1:45 scale for European 0 does not alter

1974-439: A single afternoon. Plastic models are available in both full hull and waterline versions for a wide variety of vessels. A more recent addition has been a variety of kits in cold cure resin marketed by various small companies as part of a cottage industry . These often cover more obscure subjects than mainstream manufacturers. Scales vary as well, with many kits from the early days being "box scale"; that is, scaled to fit into

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2068-563: A structural scale model under static loading conditions in the elastic regime is presented in Table 2.2 of the book Structural Modeling and Experimental Techniques . Structural engineering scale models can use different approaches to satisfy the similitude requirements of scale model fabrication and testing. A practical introduction to scale model design and testing is discussed in the paper "Pseudodynamic Testing of Scaled Models". Aerodynamic models may be used for testing new aircraft designs in

2162-427: A subject the model represents. Abstract or conceptual models are central to philosophy of science , as almost every scientific theory effectively embeds some kind of model of the physical or human sphere . In some sense, a physical model "is always the reification of some conceptual model; the conceptual model is conceived ahead as the blueprint of the physical one", which is then constructed as conceived. Thus,

2256-468: A thick form to be carefully applied to a bonding surface, or in a thin liquid which is applied into a joint by capillary action using a brush or syringe needle. Ethyl cyanoacrylate (ECA) aka "super-glue", or fast-setting epoxy , must be used to bond styrene to other materials. Glossy colors are generally used for car and commercial truck exteriors. Flat colors are generally desirable for military vehicles, aircraft, and spacecraft. Metallic colors simulate

2350-617: A uniform sized box designed to fit conveniently on hobby shop shelves. Scales have since become more standardized to enable modelers to construct consistent scale collections, but there are still many to choose from. In Europe 1/400 scale remains popular, while in the United States and Japan the most popular scales are 1/700 (making a World War Two aircraft carrier about a foot long) and 1/350 (twice as long as 1/700 ). Nevertheless, mainstream plastic kit manufacturers continue to produce kits as small as 1/1200 and as large as 1/72, with

2444-1029: A variety of materials and are intended for different purposes. The most common purposes for boat and ship models include burial votives, house hold articles, art, and toys. While archaeologists have found ship and boat models from societies all around the Mediterranean, the three of the most prolific ship model building cultures were the Greeks, Phoenicians, and Egyptians. Archaeologists have determined that Ancient Greek ship models were used as burial or votive offerings and as household articles such as lamps or drinking vessels. The kinds of ships depicted in Ancient Greek models can be classified broadly as small craft, merchant vessels, and warships. Models were cast in different materials, including wood, bronze, lead, and clay. Greek warships were popular subjects to be made in miniature. One particular model, acquired by

2538-614: A variety of materials, such as: This includes injection molded or extruded plastics such as polystyrene , acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), butyrate , and clear acrylic and copolyester ( PETG ). Parts can also be cast from synthetic resins . Pine wood is sometimes used; balsa wood , a light wood, is good for flying airplane models. Aluminum or brass can be used in tubing form, or can be used in flat sheets with photo-etched surface detail. Model figures used in wargaming can be made of white metal . Styrene parts are welded together using plastic cement , which comes both in

2632-403: A war ship. Belgian maritime historian L.Basch postulates that the boat "cannot have been propelled by more than four oarsmen … so it can hardly be other than a fishing boat." As opposed to other Early Bronze Age ship and boat models, this model was not found in a burial context. This model is thought to be a child's toy or a piece of art, instead of a burial offering. The model itself features

2726-511: A wood such as pine, with plastic wheels on metal axles, which run on inclined tracks. The most famous wood racing event is the Boy Scouts of America 's annual Pinewood Derby which debuted in 1953. Entry is open to Cub Scouts . Entrants are supplied with a kit containing a wooden block out of which to carve the body, four plastic wheels, and four axle nails; or they may purchase their own commercially available kit. Regulations generally limit

2820-418: Is 4' 8.5". Therefore, a model railroad reduces that standard to scale. An HO scale model railroad runs on track that is 1/87 of 4' 8.5", or 0.649" from rail to rail. Today model railroads are more typically referred to using the term scale instead of "gauge" in most usages. Confusion arises from indiscriminate use of "scale" and "gauge" synonymously. The word "scale" strictly refers to the proportional size of

2914-597: Is a physical model that is geometrically similar to an object (known as the prototype ). Scale models are generally smaller than large prototypes such as vehicles, buildings, or people; but may be larger than small prototypes such as anatomical structures or subatomic particles. Models built to the same scale as the prototype are called mockups . Scale models are used as tools in engineering design and testing, promotion and sales, filmmaking special effects, military strategy, and hobbies such as rail transport modeling , wargaming and racing; and as toys. Model building

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3008-577: Is a craft as old as shipbuilding itself, stretching back to ancient times when water transport was first developed. Ancient ship and boat models have been discovered throughout the Mediterranean, especially from ancient Greece, Egypt, and Phoenicia . These models provide archaeologists with valuable information regarding seafaring technology and the sociological and economic importance of seafaring. In spite of how helpful ancient boat and ship models are to archaeologists, they are not always easily or correctly interpreted due to artists’ mistakes, ambiguity in

3102-464: Is a frigate appearing in Chappelle's "History of American Sailing Ships". In this example we want to estimate its size as a model. We find that the length is given at 136' 7", which rounds off to 137 feet. To convert feet (of the actual ship) to the number of inches long that the model will be, use the factors in the table on the right. To find the principal dimensions (length, height, and width) of

3196-429: Is a solid wood hull sawn and carved from a single block of wood. This method requires the greatest skill to achieve accurate results. A variant of this technique, sometimes known as bread and butter construction (the wood is the "bread" and glue the "butter") is a hull built up from thin blocks of wood glued together with either a vertical seam which can be incorporated into deck design, or a horizontal seam. This reduces

3290-422: Is also pursued as a hobby for the sake of artisanship . Scale models are constructed of plastic , wood, or metal. They are usually painted with enamel , lacquer , or acrylics . Model prototypes include all types of vehicles (railroad trains, cars, trucks, military vehicles, aircraft, and spacecraft), buildings, people, and science fiction themes (spaceships and robots). Models are built to scale , defined as

3384-469: Is described by Herodotus in The History , and depicted on pottery, coins seals and drinking cups. The model is a miniature of a vessel that would have been too small to be a typical warship. The presence of holes bored into 8 thwarts in the ship suggests that the thwarts may have been seats for a pegged-in dummy crew. If the holes bored into the thwarts are indeed meant to accommodate a dummy crew,

3478-420: Is done in a variety of scales from 1:4 to 1:450 ( T scale ). Each scale has its own strengths and weaknesses, and fills a different niche in the hobby: gauge gauge Model railroads originally used the term gauge , which refers to the distance between the rails , just as full-size railroads continue to do. Although model railroads were also built to different gauges, standard gauge in full-size railroads

3572-460: Is often used for these design efforts. Instrumented physical models can also examine internal flows, for the design of ductwork systems, pollution control equipment, food processing machines, and mixing vessels. Transparent flow models are used in this case to observe the detailed flow phenomenon. These models are scaled in terms of both geometry and important forces, for example, using Froude number or Reynolds number scaling (see Similitude ). In

3666-1333: The Aurora Plastics Corporation . However, the early N-scale motors would not fit in the smaller models of British locomotives, so the British N gauge was standardized to allow a slightly larger body size. Similar sizing problems with Japanese prototypes led to adoption of a 1:150 scale standard there. Since space is more limited in Japanese houses, N scale has become more popular there than HO scale. Static model aircraft are commonly built using plastic, but wood, metal, card and paper can also be used. Models are sold painted and assembled, painted but not assembled ( snap-fit ), or unpainted and not assembled. The most popular types of aircraft to model are commercial airliners and military aircraft. Popular aircraft scales are, in order of increasing size: 1:144 , 1:87 (also known as HO, or "half-O scale") , 1:72 (the most numerous), 1:48 (known as "O scale") , 1:32 , 1:24 , 1:16 , 1:6, and 1:4 . Some European models are available at more metric scales such as 1:50 . The highest quality models are made from injection molded plastic or cast resin . Models made from Vacuum formed plastic are generally for

3760-542: The United States Navy 's Submarine Attack Teacher at Groton, Connecticut . Larger ship models have been used in museums to document historical ships, in companies for decoration and public relations. These are typically built by commercial firms, or, in the past, model departments of large shipyards. One famous builder of ship models for the United States Navy was the firm of Gibbs & Cox ;

3854-875: The 1880s there were three model sailing clubs sharing the Kensington Gardens Round Pond alone. In the early part of the 20th century, amateur ship model kits became available from companies such as Bassett-Lowke in Great Britain and Boucher's in the United States. Early 20th century models comprised a combination of wooden hulls and cast lead for anchors, deadeyes, and rigging blocks. These materials gradually gave way to plastic precast sets. The development of tinplate and improvements in machine tools enabled significant advances in ship modelling from 1900 onwards. Thin, workable sheets of iron could be coated with tin to prevent rusting, then mass-produced as parts of ship model kits. The process

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3948-513: The 1950s. The first model rocket engine was designed in 1954 by Orville Carlisle , a licensed pyrotechnics expert, and his brother Robert, a model airplane enthusiast. Static model rocket kits began as a development of model aircraft kits, yet the scale of 1:72 [V.close to 4 mm.::1foot] never caught on. Scales 1:48 and 1:96 are most frequently used. There are some rockets of scales 1:128, 1:144 , and 1:200 , but Russian firms put their large rockets in 1:288. Heller SA offers some models in

4042-436: The 19th century. Until the early 18th century, virtually all European small craft and many larger vessels were built without formal plans being drawn. Shipwrights would construct models to show prospective customers how the full size ship would appear and to illustrate advanced building techniques. These were also useful for marine artists , and it is clear that from Dutch Golden Age Painting onwards extensive use of models

4136-590: The Japanese import Tamiya . Some beginner's level kits avoid the necessity to paint the model by adding pigments and chrome plating to the plastic. Decals are generally applied to models after painting and assembly, to add details such as lettering, flags, insignia, or other decorations too small to paint. Water transfer (slide-on) decals are generally used, but beginner's kits may use dry transfer stickers instead. Model railroading (US and Canada; known as railway modelling in UK, Australia, New Zealand, and Ireland)

4230-511: The Phoenician coast, but scientists have been able to tentatively confirm the origin and authenticity of this model. The model is of an oared boat manned by three pairs of oarsmen, who are rendered with "hands … raised to their chests, in the last instant of pulling the oar in the water, before lifting it for the recovery." The mystery of this model is the purpose of small holes- three on the starboard side, and four on port- that were made in

4324-549: The Phoenician vessel above (H-3134) to be about 6 meters long and the beam about 2 meters. Archaeologists are able to calculate these estimates of size by employing a series of assumptions about the distance between benches, the lateral distance between rowers, and a maximum draft of the vessel. Egyptian ship and boat models are perhaps some of the most well-preserved types of ship models available to archaeologists. Ancient Egyptian ship and boat models were most frequently placed in tombs of prominent people as "magical substitutes for

4418-584: The Staatliches Museum (engl.: Land museum ) in Kassel , Germany, proves to be helpful to archaeologists and historians in understanding what a hemiolia warship was like. Archaeologists have tentatively dated the Kassel model to be from the 6th or 5th centuries BC through iconographic and literary sources. This ship model is made of clay and features a distinctive prow shaped like a boar's head that

4512-498: The US and Humbrol (now Hornby ) in the UK. Lacquer paint produces a hard, durable finish, and requires its own lacquer thinner . Enamels have been generally replaced in popularity by acrylic paint , which is water-based. Advantages include decreased toxicity and chemical smell, and brushes clean with soap and water. Disadvantages include possibly limited durability on plastic, requiring priming coats, at least two color coats, and allowing adequate cure time. Popular brands include

4606-569: The actual objects which the deceased has used in life and which he expected to use again in the next world." These boats have been categorised into two types: boat models that represent actual vessels used on the Nile, and boat models that represent boats that are considered necessary for religious purposes. The second type of model may or may not have been used in real life, but were purely magical boats. The majority of boats found in tombs are carved from wood. Several boat and ship models were found in

4700-433: The advent of aftermarket parts to enhance the basic kits. Decals, specialized paints and turned metal replacement gun barrels are available to make plastic models more accurate. The introduction of flat photoetched metal sets, usually stainless steel or brass, also provide much more realistic lifelines, cranes, and other details than are possible with the injection molded plastic kits. These photoetch sets have transformed

4794-470: The aerodynamic requirements of a small model are different from those of a full-size craft, so flying models are seldom fully accurate to scale. Flying model aircraft are one of three types: free flight , control line , and radio controlled . Some flying model kits take many hours to put together, and some kits are almost ready to fly or ready to fly . Model rocketry dates back to the Space Race of

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4888-410: The amount of carving required, but still requires skill and the use of templates to achieve an accurate hull form. Modelling precision and lightweight design can be achieved by creating a hollow hull. The plank on bulkhead technique inserts a series of shaped bulkheads along the keel to form a shaped stage which will be covered with planks to form the hull of the model. Plank on frame designs build

4982-460: The benches and one on the others. Until this ship model was discovered, archaeologists, classicists, and historians had only been able to hypothesize on what the seating arrangement might have been like on a hemiolia based on its name. Not all ancient Greek ship models are of warships. One boat model from a house deposit in Mochlos , Crete, dating to around 3000BC, is thought to be too small to be

5076-597: The car's weight to 5 ounces (141.7 g), width to 2.75 inches (7.0 cm), and length to 7 inches (17.8 cm). The rules permit the cars to be augmented with tungsten carbide weights up to the limit, and graphite axle lubricant. Miniature wargames are played using miniature soldiers, artillery, vehicles, and scenery built by the players. Before the advent of computer-generated imagery (CGI), visual effects of vehicles such as marine ships and spaceships were created by filming "miniature" models. These were considerably larger scale than hobby versions to allow inclusion of

5170-440: The concept is model warship combat , in which scale models fire projectiles at each other in combat. Model ships are important in the field of engineering, where analytical modeling of a new design needs to be verified. Principals of similitude are used to apply measured data from a scaled model to the full scale design. Models are often tested in special facilities known as model basins . Scale model A scale model

5264-519: The cost of the first. As the Enterprise was originally reckoned to be 947 feet (289 m) long, this put the models at 1:344 and 1:83.9 scale respectively. The Polar Lights company sells a large plastic Enterprise model kit essentially the same size as the first TV model, in 1:350 scale (32 inches long). It can be purchased with an optional electronic lighting and animation (rotating engine domes) kit. Although structural engineering has been

5358-399: The craftsmen who make ship models. As is attested by the ambiguity of the holes in the sides of the Phoenician model, and the skiff from Meketre, archaeologists need to be aware of the possibility of artistic error while interpreting ancient ship models. While a mistake involving an inverted trawling net may seem trivial, the lesson is important. It is important for archaeologists to be aware of

5452-434: The crew seating would have been arranged with two men per bench amidships, and one man per bench fore and aft where the ship narrows so that there is only room for one man. Alec Tilley (former Royal Navy and Navy of Oman officer) suggests that a small ship with this type of seating arrangement would have been called a hemiolia, or a one-and-a-halfer. The name indicates that two oarsmen would have been seated on half of

5546-448: The decades since World War Two injection-molded polystyrene plastic model ships have become increasingly popular. Consisting of preformed plastic parts which can be bonded together with plastic cement, these models are much simpler to construct than the more labor-intensive traditional wooden models. The inexpensive plastic kits were initially targeted to the postwar generation who could glue them together and produce passable replicas in

5640-549: The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was wide public interest in ships and ship models. Numerous fairly crude models were built as children's toys leading to the creation of functional, as opposed to decorative, ship models. Britain also led the world in model ship sailing clubs – in 1838 the Serpentine Sailing Society was started in Hyde Park , followed by the first London Model Yacht Club in 1845. By

5734-472: The financing or some other aspect of the ship, to avoid construction errors that might have evolved as the ship itself took form. During the Napoleonic wars French and English seamen who were taken prisoner were confined, sometimes for many years, and in their boredom sought relief by building ship models from scraps of wood and bone. This evolved into something of an art form and the models were sold to

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5828-550: The first Star Wars film and the 1978 TV series Battlestar Galactica also spawned lines of licensed model kits in scales ranging from 1:24 for fighters and smaller ships, to 1:1000, 1:1400, and 1:2500 for most main franchise ships, and up to 1:10000 for the larger Star Wars ships (for especially objects like the Death Stars and Super Star Destroyers , even smaller scales are used). Finemolds in Japan have recently released

5922-411: The hobby, enabling the finescale modeler to reproduce very delicate details with much less effort. Enthusiasts build live steam model ships of many types and in many scales. These range from simple pop pop boats to models of racing hydroplanes . Instead of using plans made specifically for models, many model shipwrights use the actual blueprints for the original vessel. One can take drawings for

6016-435: The introduction of elaborate rules made the practice more popular in the early 20th century. Small miniature ships, often in 1:1200 scale and 1:1250 scale were maneuvered on large playing surfaces to either recreate a historical battle, or in the case of governments, plan for future encounters. These models were basic representations of ship types, with enough detail to make them recognizable. Bassett-Lowke marketed these to

6110-461: The model design, and wear and tear over the centuries. Ships "were among the most technologically complex mechanisms of the ancient world." Ships made far-flung travel and trade more comfortable and economical, and they added a whole new facet to warfare. Thus, ships carried a great deal of significance to the people of the ancient world, and this is expressed partly through the creation of boat and ship models. Ancient boat and ship models are made of

6204-473: The model just as the full size wooden ship is constructed. The keel is laid down in a manner which keeps it straight and true. The sternpost and stem are erected, deadwood and strengthening pieces inserted, and a series of shaped frames are built and erected along the keel to form the internal framework of the model. The planks are then applied over the frame to form the external covering. A wooden hull can be used for operating models if properly sealed. In

6298-604: The model, while "gauge" strictly applies to the measurement between the inside faces of the rails. It is completely incorrect to refer to the mainstream scales as "HO gauge", "N gauge, "Z gauge", etc. This is further complicated by the fact some scales use several different gauges; for example, HO scale uses 16.5 mm as the standard gauge of 4 ft  8 + 1 ⁄ 2  in ( 1,435 mm ), 12 mm to represent 1,000 mm ( 3 ft  3 + 3 ⁄ 8  in ) gauge (HOm), and 3 ft 6 in ( 1,067 mm ) (HOn3-1/2), and 9 mm to represent

6392-507: The more skilled builder. More inexpensive models are made from heavy paper or card stock. Ready-made die-cast metal models are also very popular. As well as the traditional scales, die-cast models are available in 1:200 , 1:250 , 1:350 , 1:400 , 1:500 and 1:600 scale . The majority of aircraft modelers concern themselves with depiction of real-life aircraft, but there are some modelers who 'bend' history by modeling aircraft that either never actually flew or existed, or by painting them in

6486-1247: The most concerned with accuracy and detail. Kit assembly is done either "out of the box", or with modifications (known as " kitbashing "). Many kit manufacturers, for various reasons leave something to be desired in terms of accuracy, but using the kit parts as a baseline and adding after-market conversion kits, alternative decal sets, and some scratch building can correct this without the master craftsmanship or time expenditure required by scratch building. Scale models are generally of two types: static and animated . They are used for several purposes in many fields, including: Most hobbyist's models are built for static display, but some have operational features, such as railroad trains that roll, and airplanes and rockets that fly. Flying airplane models may be simple unpowered gliders, or have sophisticated features such as radio control powered by miniature methanol/nitromethane engines . Cars in 1:24, 1:32, or HO scale are fitted with externally powered electric motors which run on plastic road track fitted with metal rails on slots. The track may or may not be augmented with miniature buildings, trees, and people. Children can build and race their own gravity-powered, uncontrolled cars carved out of

6580-413: The notable exceptions of O scale and N scale. There are three different versions of the "O" scale, each of which uses tracks of 32 mm for the standard gauge. The American version follows a dollhouse scale of 1:48, sometimes called "quarter-gauge" as in "one-quarter-inch to the foot". The British version continued the pattern of sub-contracting to Germans, so, at 7 mm to the foot, it works out to

6674-491: The oldest surviving European ship models have been those of early craft such as galleys , galleons , and possibly carracks , dating from the 12th through the 15th centuries and found occasionally mounted in churches, where they were used in ceremonies to bless ships and those who sailed in them, or as votive offerings for successful voyages or surviving peril at sea, a practice which remained common in Catholic countries until

6768-408: The original ship to a blueprint service and have them blown up, or reduced to bring them to the new scale . For instance, if the drawings are in 1/4" scale and you intend to build in 3/16", tell the service to reduce them 25%. You can use the conversion table below to determine the percentage of change. You can easily work directly from the original drawings however, by changing scale each time you make

6862-424: The papyriform skiffs have a trawling net slung between them. It is uncertain whether or not the net is meant to be depicted as being under the water or being pulled out of the water by the fishermen. In the event that the artist meant for the net to be in the water, it is upside down. Needless to say, the upside down net would not work for catching fish. This ambiguity points up the question of artistic veracity of

6956-405: The possibility that ancient artists may not have been familiar with the finer details of ships and boats. Despite some of the limitations of interpreting ancient Mediterranean ship models, archaeologists have been able to glean a great deal of information from these items. This information has been instrumental in filling in gaps in knowledge about ancient seafaring technology and culture. Some of

7050-411: The pre-computer era, the UK economy was modelled with the hydraulic model MONIAC , to predict for example the effect of tax rises on employment. A conceptual model is a theoretical representation of a system, e.g. a set of mathematical equations attempting to describe the workings of the atmosphere for the purpose of weather forecasting. It consists of concepts used to help understand or simulate

7144-425: The prototype corresponding to one inch on the model, e.g. 1:48 scale = "1 inch to 4 feet", 1:96 = "1 inch to 8 feet", etc. Models are obtained by three different means: kit assembly , scratch building , and collecting pre-assembled models. Scratch building is the only option available to structural engineers, and among hobbyists requires the highest level of skill, craftsmanship, and time; scratch builders tend to be

7238-544: The public in England, along with more detailed versions that appealed to collectors. Prior to World War II , the German company Wiking became a leader in the field but the war ended its dominance. Upon the United States' entry into World War II, Charles King Van Riper was commissioned to build identification models at a scale of 1 ft (0.30 m) to 64 ft (20 m). He produced 1:1200 models of freighters for

7332-403: The public, which responded by supplying the prisoners with ivory so that the models would be more decorative. For the most part, the models had carved wooden hulls with rigging made from human hair, horsehair, silk, or whatever other fine material could be obtained. Bone or ivory would be used for masts and spars, and as a thin veneer over the hull. A consequence of Britain's naval supremacy in

7426-552: The purpose of finding one's way in the city (pragmatism). Additional properties have been proposed, like extension and distortion as well as validity . The American philosopher Michael Weisberg differentiates between concrete and mathematical models and proposes computer simulations (computational models) as their own class of models. Ship model Ship models or model ships are scale models of ships . They can range in size from 1/6000 scale wargaming miniatures to large vessels capable of holding people. Ship modeling

7520-456: The purpose of these holes suggests that "ropes for holding oars were threaded through these holes." Ship models are helpful to archaeologists in that they allow archaeologists to make estimates regarding the size the vessel would be in real life. While this technique makes the assumption that artists scaled the models appropriately, it is useful to get some sense of how large these ships and boats may have been in real life. Archaeologists estimate

7614-414: The ratio of any linear dimension of the model to the equivalent dimension on the full-size subject (called the "prototype"), expressed either as a ratio with a colon (ex. 1:8 scale), or as a fraction with a slash (1/8 scale). This designates that 1 inch (or centimeter) on the model represents 8 such units on the prototype. In English-speaking countries, the scale is sometimes expressed as the number of feet on

7708-654: The requirements of similitude to study the problem. Many structural labs exist to test these structural scale models such as the Newmark Civil Engineering Laboratory at the University of Illinois, UC. For structural engineering scale models, it is important for several specific quantities to be scaled according to the theory of similitude. These quantities can be broadly grouped into three categories: loading , geometry , and material properties . A good reference for considering scales for

7802-497: The scale of 1:125. Science fiction space ships are heavily popular in the modeling community. In 1966, with the release of the television show Star Trek: The Original Series , AMT corporation released an 18-inch (46 cm) model of the Starship Enterprise . This has been followed over the decades by a complete array of various starships, shuttlecraft , and space stations from the Star Trek franchise. The 1977 release of

7896-460: The scale. There is a simple conversion factor that allows you to determine the approximate size of a model by taking the actual measurements of the full-size ship and arriving at a scale factor. It is a rough way of deciding whether you want to build a model that is about two feet long, three feet long, or four feet long. Here is a ship model conversion example using a real ship, the Hancock. This

7990-472: The series of cars in 1:43 scale , as it has the widest distribution in the world. In America, a series of cars was developed from at first cast metal and later styrene models ("promos") offered at new-car dealerships to drum up interest. The firm Monogram , and later Tamiya , first produced them in a scale derived from the Architect's scale: 1:24 scale , while the firms AMT , Jo-Han , and Revell chose

8084-404: The sides of the ship with a sharp tool before the clay dried. It is believed that the holes are too small to pass an oar through, and thus would not be used for rowing purposes. This is hard to prove, however, because the poorly preserved state of the model and the amount of fouling that is layered on the model makes it difficult to definitively rule out this possibility. Another theory regarding

8178-436: The structure to the environment. Another use is as a toy . Instrumented physical models are an effective way of investigating fluid flows for engineering design. Physical models are often coupled with computational fluid dynamics models to optimize the design of equipment and processes. This includes external flow such as around buildings, vehicles, people, or hydraulic structures . Wind tunnel and water tunnel testing

8272-468: The technical aspects of seafaring, and the cultural importance of seafaring for the ancient Phoenicians. However, some models offer tantalizing pieces of information that are, however, difficult to interpret. Item number H-3134 at the Hecht Museum, a dark-brown clay model of a 5th-century BCE oared boat, is one such craft. The vessel has no provenance, save for the reported location of its discovery off

8366-417: The term refers to models that are formed after a conceptualization or generalization process. According to Herbert Stachowiak , a model is characterized by at least three properties: For example, a street map is a model of the actual streets in a city (mapping), showing the course of the streets while leaving out, say, traffic signs and road markings (reduction), made for pedestrians and vehicle drivers for

8460-770: The tomb of Tutankhamen , dating back to the Sixth Dynasty , and in the tomb of Meketre (2061–2010 BC). The wide variety of vessels depicted by the models in these two tombs has provided archaeologists new information on the types of boats that were used in Egypt. Moreover, the presence of boat and ship models in the tombs attests to the paramount importance of boats and ships to the Nile-going people of Egypt. The boat models discovered at Meketre's tomb feature several different kinds of boats, including traveling boats, sporting boats, and several papyriform crafts. Two of

8554-504: The various metals (silver, gold, aluminum, steel, copper, brass, etc.) Enamel paint has classically been used for model making and is generally considered the most durable paint for plastics. It is available in small bottles for brushing and airbrushing , and aerosol spray cans . Disadvantages include toxicity and a strong chemical smell of the paint and its mineral spirit thinner /brush cleaner. Modern enamels are made of alkyd resin to limit toxicity. Popular brands include Testor 's in

8648-677: Was made by artists. Ship models constructed for the Royal Navy were referred to as Admiralty models and were principally constructed during the 18th and 19th centuries to depict proposed warship design. Although many of these models did not illustrate the actual timbering or framing, they did show the form of the hull and usually had great detail of the deck furnishings, masts, spars, and general configuration. Some of these grand models were decorated with carvings of great beauty and were evidently constructed by teams of artisans. Admiralty models served to educate civilians who were involved in

8742-648: Was pioneered by French ship model manufacturer Radiguet , which produced a line of zinc boats with pressurised steam engines, wooden decking and brass fittings. The speed of production for tinplate vessels enabled one 1909 manufacturer to produce ship models of speedboats that had competed that year in Monaco . Ship modelling in the United States experienced a boom in the late 1920s when Popular Science magazine published an extended series of articles and plans for famous ships by modeller and former Navy officer E. Armitage McCann . McCann, who, according to Popular Science

8836-506: Was the "recognized leader of the ship model building hobby" of his time founded the Ship Model Makers′ Club in 1929, with him as secretary and treasurer and marine artist and fellow ship model builder Gordon Grant as president. The world's leading magazine for this hobby, Model Boat , is published from the UK by MyTime Media and has been in print continuously since 1950. In recent years, widespread internet access has played

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