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68-510: William of Conches , Peter Helias , and Ralph of Beauvais , also referred to as speculative grammarians predate the Modist movement proper. The Modist philosophy was first developed by Martin of Dacia (died 1304) and his colleagues in the mid-13th century, though it would rise to prominence only after its systematization by Thomas of Erfurt decades later, in his treatise De modis significandi seu grammatica speculativa , probably written in

136-485: A þing , an assembly of all free men, whose meeting place may be preserved in the name of Le Tingland . Within a few generations of the founding of Normandy in 911, however, the Scandinavian settlers had intermarried with the natives and adopted much of their culture. But in 911, Normandy was not a political nor monetary unit. Frankish culture remained dominant and according to some scholars, 10th century Normandy

204-722: A "good pagan" like the Trojan hero Aeneas. Through this narrative, the Normans were assimilated closer to the Frankish core as they moved away from their pagan Scandinavian origins. There were two distinct patterns of Norse settlement in the duchy. In the Danish area in the Roumois and the Caux , settlers intermingled with the indigenous Gallo-Romance -speaking population. Rollo shared out

272-513: A bowdlerized or revised edition of the Philosophia ; however, from the 1980s, scholars have reconsidered this attitude, noting that only about 3–5% of the earlier work was removed against a rough doubling of content, with numerous additional Greek and Arabic sources. A "lost" treatise Magna de Naturis Philosophia ("The Great Philosophy of Nature"), considered his true masterwork by his early biographers and sometimes still attributed to him,

340-862: A common grammar, a shared foundation of ontologically anchored linguistic structures. He argued grammar is substantially the same in all languages, even though it may undergo accidental variations between languages. There are parallels between speculative grammar and phenomenology , a fact that was picked up early on by Martin Heidegger , who wrote his first book, Die Kategorien- und Bedeutungslehre des Duns Scotus ( Duns Scotus's Doctrine of Categories and Meaning , 1916), on Thomas of Erfurt's treatise (at that time still mistakenly attributed to Duns Scotus). William of Conches William of Conches ( Latin : Gulielmus de Conchis ; French : Guillaume de Conches ; c.  1090  – c.  1154 ), historically sometimes anglicized as William Shelley ,

408-598: A count or given comital authority, but later sagas refer to him as Rúðujarl (earl of Rouen). In 924, King Radulf extended Rollo's county westward up to the river Vire , including the Bessin , where some Danes from England had settled not long before. In 933, King Radulf granted the Avranchin and Cotentin to Rollo's son and successor, William Longsword . These areas had been previously under Breton rule. The northern Cotentin had been settled by Norwegians coming from

476-539: A crisis in Normandy, with a minor succeeding as Richard I , and also led to a temporary revival of Norse paganism in Normandy. Richard I's son, Richard II , was the first to be styled duke of Normandy, the ducal title becoming established between 987 and 1006. The Norman dukes created the most powerful, consolidated duchy in Western Europe between the years 980, when the dukes helped place Hugh Capet on

544-687: A leading member of the School of Chartres , early Scholastics who formed part of the 12th-century Renaissance . Less focused on Aristotle and medieval dialectic than Peter Abelard and his students at the University of Paris , the Chartrians primarily aimed to reconcile Christian morality and legend with Platonic philosophy , chiefly with reference to the Book of Genesis and Plato 's Timaeus . William began teaching around 1115 –1120 and

612-617: Is the practice in the United Kingdom. Queen Elizabeth II is often referred to by her traditional and conventional title of Duke of Normandy. However ... she is not the Duke in a constitutional capacity and instead governs in her right as Queen ... This notwithstanding, it is a matter of local pride for monarchists to treat the situation otherwise: the Loyal Toast at formal dinners is to "The Queen, our Duke" rather than "Her Majesty,

680-455: The Dragmaticon includes various medieval European and Arab misconceptions, such as explanations for why premature infants born in the 8th month of pregnancy (supposedly) invariably died while those born in the 7th month sometimes lived. The supposed infrequency at which prostitutes gave birth was taken as evidence that pleasure was necessary for conception, while births from rape

748-721: The droit de varech (from Old Danish vrek ), the right to all shipwrecks. He also had a monopoly on whale and sturgeon. A similar monopoly belonged to the Danish king in the Jutlandic law of 1241. Remarkably, whale (including dolphins) and sturgeon still belong to the monarch in the United Kingdom in the twenty-first century, as royal fish . The Norman Latin terms for whalers ( valmanni , from hvalmenn ) and whaling station ( valseta , from hvalmannasetr ) both derive from Old Norse. Likewise, fishing in Normandy seems to have come under Scandinavian rules. A charter of 1030 uses

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816-572: The Dream of Scipio ( Glosae super Macrobium ); his other works also mention now-lost commentaries on Martianus Capella 's On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury and on Boethius's On Education in Music . He was probably responsible for several surviving glosses of Juvenal 's Satires and is credited by some with a lost commentary on Vergil 's Aeneid . He is sometimes still credited as

884-562: The Norman Exchequer on 9 November 1469 the ducal ring was placed on an anvil and smashed. Philippe de Commynes expressed what was probably a common Norman thought of the time: "It has always seemed good to the Normans and still does that their great duchy really should require a duke" ( A tousjours bien semblé aux Normands et faict encores que si grand duchié comme la leur requiert bien un duc ). Dauphin Louis Charles ,

952-463: The dukes of Normandy were usually also kings of England , the only exceptions being Dukes Robert Curthose (1087–1106), Geoffrey Plantagenet (1144–1150), and Henry II (1150–1152), who became king of England in 1154. In 1202, Philip II of France declared Normandy forfeit to him and seized it by force of arms in 1204 . It remained disputed territory until the Treaty of Paris of 1259 , when

1020-632: The fixed stars simply followed the motion of the ether itself. William presented three arguments for the existence of God based on the order of the world . He identified the parts of the Trinity with their attributes: God the Father as Power, Jesus the Son as Wisdom, and the Holy Spirit as Will or Goodness. Unlike Abelard, he did not argue that God could not avoid creation but he did tend to limit

1088-616: The four elements but follows Constantine the African in considering an element "the simplest and minimum part of any body—simple in quality, minimum in quantity". Therefore, he does not identify elemental fire, air, water, or earth with any of the composite forms in which they are experienced by humans. He argues that the pure forms of the elements cannot be perceived but only grasped by reason applied to abstracted division of sensible forms. He considers that these pure elements are defined by their intrinsic temperature and moistness : earth

1156-406: The modi intelligendi the understanding's means of representing the modi essendi , and the modi significandi grammar's means of representing the modi intelligendi in language. This corresponds to Aristotle's tripartite semantic theory of words representing concepts which represent objects . Opposing nominalism , they assumed that the analysis of the grammar of ordinary language

1224-466: The 1150s but these are inconclusive. He died in 1154 or shortly afterward, probably at Paris or the environs of Évreux. The funeral slab with his effigy has been moved from its original location at St Germanus's Church, Tilleul, to St Faith's Church in Conches. The number and attribution of works by William of Conches has been a persistent problem of medieval bibliography, as has the inaccuracy of

1292-769: The Channel in such circumstances to support Richard II in the conflict against the count of Chartres and was baptized in Rouen in 1014. In 1066, Duke William defeated Harold II of England at the Battle of Hastings and was subsequently crowned King of England , through the Norman conquest of England . Anglo-Norman and French relations became complicated after the Norman Conquest. The Norman dukes retained control of their holdings in Normandy as vassals owing fealty to

1360-522: The Duchy or its structure exists, there has never been a formal end to Norman state rule over the islands. The first Viking attack up the Seine river took place in 820. By 911, the area had been raided many times and there were even small Viking settlements on the lower Seine. The text of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte has not survived. It is only known through the historian Dudo of Saint-Quentin , who

1428-465: The Duke of Normandy!" Below is a list of the seneschals ( sénéchal de Normandie ) and governors of Normandy ( gouverneur de Normandie ) during its time as a French province. There are traces of Scandinavian law in the customary laws of Normandy, which were first written down in the 13th century. A charter of 1050, listing several pleas before Duke William II , refers to the penalty of banishment as ullac (from Old Norse útlagr ). The word

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1496-681: The English sovereign ceded his claim except for the Channel Islands ; i.e., the Bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey , and their dependencies (including Sark ). In the Kingdom of France , the duchy was occasionally set apart as an appanage to be ruled by a member of the royal family. After 1469, however, it was permanently united to the royal domain , although the title was occasionally conferred as an honorific upon junior members of

1564-548: The French throne, and 1050. Scholarly churchmen were brought into Normandy from the Rhineland, and they built and endowed monasteries and supported monastic schools, thus helping to integrate distant territories into a wider framework. The dukes imposed heavy feudal burdens on the ecclesiastical fiefs , which supplied the armed knights that enabled the dukes to control the restive lay lords but whose bastards could not inherit. By

1632-727: The King of France, but they were his equals as kings of England. Serfdom was outlawed around 1100. From 1154 until 1214, with the creation of the Angevin Empire , the Angevin kings of England controlled half of France and all of England, dwarfing the power of the French king, yet the Angevins were still de jure French vassals. The Duchy remained part of the Angevin Empire until 1204, when Philip II of France conquered

1700-505: The Modistae, as indicated by their name, was based on a theory of 'modes' of meaning in language which was tripartite: modes of being ( modi essendi ), modes of understanding ( modi intelligendi ), and modes of signifying ( modi significandi ). To the Modistae, the various parts of speech were viewed as representing reality in terms of these modes. The modi essendi are objectively existent qualities in an object of understanding,

1768-567: The Philosophy of the Elements ( Elementorum Philosophiae Libri Quatuor ), William of Hirsau 's Three Books of Philosophical and Astronomical Instruction ( Philosophicarum et Astronomicarum Institutionum Libri Tres ), and Honorius of Autun 's Four Books on the Philosophy of the World ( De Philosophia Mundi Libri Quatuor ). A separate recension rediscovered in the 20th century

1836-559: The Queen" as in the UK. The title 'Duke of Normandy' is not used in formal government publications, and, as a matter of Channel Islands law, does not exist. The British historian Ben Pimlott noted that while Queen Elizabeth II was on a visit to mainland Normandy in May 1967, French locals began to doff their hats and shout "Vive la Duchesse!" , to which the Queen supposedly replied "Well, I am

1904-606: The United Kingdom, with history blending the link between the two gradually. In official documents in Guernsey , the British monarch is entitled "Duke of Normandy", while in official documents in Jersey , the British monarch is ambiguously titled Sovereign . In 1204, Normandy was transferred from England to France , with the exception of the Channel Islands , which were never incorporated into England . As such, although no form of

1972-562: The aim of developing fluency and cultivating elegant diction. William of St. Thierry , who had previously encouraged Bernard of Clairvaux to prosecute Abelard, wrote another letter to the same cleric "on the errors of William of Conches" ( De Erroribus Guillelmi de Conchis ) in 1141, complaining of the modalist view of the Trinity implicit in the Philosophia . William had not explicitly upheld with Bernard Sylvestris that Plato's " world soul " ( Latin : anima mundi ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : ψυχὴ τοῦ κόσμου , psychḕ toû kósmou )

2040-515: The author of Moralium Dogma Philosophorum ("Philosophers' Moral Teachings "), the first medieval treatise on philosophical ethics, although this attribution is more suspect. The gloss of the Gospels ( Glosa super Evangelia ) credited to him was either entirely spurious or a misattribution of content from William of Auvergne . William's generally credited works are marked by special attention to cosmology and psychology and were among

2108-469: The bitterness of some of his discussion of clerics in his later works is suggestive of a compromise worked out between Bernard and his friend the papal legate Geoffroy de Lèves , who as bishop of Chartres would have overseen its affiliated school, but there is no explicit surviving record of such an arrangement. William then sought the patronage and protection of Geoffrey Plantagenet , the learned and powerful count of Anjou . In 1143 or 1144, he became

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2176-453: The continental lands of the Duchy, which became part of the royal domain. The English sovereigns continued to claim them until the Treaty of Paris (1259) but in fact kept only the Channel Islands . Having little confidence in the loyalty of the Normans, Philip installed French administrators and built a powerful fortress, the Château de Rouen , as a symbol of royal power. Although within

2244-425: The direct acts of God to creation, with angels otherwise intermediary between Heaven and this world. However, his understanding of the physical world did prompt him to reject various parts of scripture, including that there is water in or beyond the heavens or that Eve was created from Adam 's rib . The discussion of medicine deals chiefly with procreation and childbirth . William's treatment here and in

2312-462: The first decade of the 14th century. Until the early twentieth-century this work was assumed to have been authored by John Duns Scotus . Widely reproduced and commented upon in the Middle Ages , it remains the most complete textbook of Modist speculative grammar. The mistaken authorship arose out of the natural affinity of Erfurt's speculative grammar with Scotus's metaphysics. The philosophy of

2380-707: The first works of medieval Christian philosophy to devote considerable attention to Islamic philosophy and science , using the Latin translations produced by Constantine the African . They display the humanism , Platonism , and affinity for the natural sciences of other members of the School of Chartres, with whom William shared the tendency of analyzing his source texts through the lens of "covering" or "shieding" ( integumentum ) treating any apparent contradictions or heretical content within them as an allegory or metaphor for an underlying accurate and orthodox truth. In

2448-797: The former Duchy of Normandy to remain under the rule of the British monarch. Although the English monarchy relinquished claims to continental Normandy and other French claims in 1259 (in the Treaty of Paris ), the Channel Islands (except for Chausey under French sovereignty) remain Crown dependencies of the British throne. In the islanders' loyal toast, they say, "The Duke of Normandy, our King", or "The King, our Duke", " L'Rouai, nouotre Duc " or " L'Roué, note Du " in Norman ( Jèrriais and Guernésiais respectively), or " Le Roi, notre Duc " in Standard French , rather than simply "The King", as

2516-628: The idea of "Norman" as a political identity was a deliberate creation of the court of Richard I in the 960s as a way to "create a powerful if rather incoherent sense of group solidarity to galvanize the duchy's disparate elites around the duke". Starting with Rollo , Normandy was ruled by an enduring and long-lived Viking dynasty. Illegitimacy was not a bar to succession and three of the first six rulers of Normandy were illegitimate sons of concubines. Rollo's successor, William Longsword, managed in expanding his domain and came into conflict with Arnulf of Flanders , who had him assassinated in 942. This led to

2584-588: The intermittent installation of a duke. In practice, the King of France sometimes gave that portion of his kingdom to a close member of his family, who then did homage to the king. Philippe VI made Jean , his eldest son and heir to his throne, the Duke of Normandy. In turn, Jean II appointed his heir, Charles . In 1465, Louis XI was forced by the League of the Public Weal to cede the duchy to his eighteen-year-old brother, Charles de Valois . This concession

2652-412: The large estates with his companions and gave agricultural land to his other followers. Danish settlers cleared their own land to farm it, and there was no segregation of populations. In the northern Cotentin on the other hand, the population was purely Norwegian. Coastal features bore Norse names as did the three pagi of Haga, Sarnes and Helganes (as late as 1027). The Norwegians may even have set up

2720-429: The main court of Normandy , were declared final. This meant that Paris could not reverse a judgment of Rouen. Another important concession was that the King of France could not raise a new tax without the consent of the Normans. However the charter, granted at a time when royal authority was faltering, was violated several times thereafter when the monarchy had regained its power. The Duchy of Normandy survived mainly by

2788-762: The many manuscripts and editions. It is now certain that William wrote two editions of the encyclopedic De Philosophia Mundi ("On the Philosophy of the World"), although it was previously variously attributed to Bede , William of Hirsau , Honorius of Autun , and Hugh of St Victor . Likewise, he wrote one edition of the related dialogue Dragmaticon , whose neological name has been variously emended to Dramaticon ("A Dramatization") and to Pragmaticon Philosophiae ("The Business of Philosophy") although William himself understood his transliteration of dramatikón ( δραματικόν ) as meaning an interrogation ( interrogatio ) or question-and-answer format. The Dragmaticon continues to be largely considered

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2856-526: The mid-11th century the Duke of Normandy could count on more than 300 armed and mounted knights from his ecclesiastical vassals alone. By the 1020s the dukes were able to impose vassalage on the lay nobility as well. Until Richard II, the Norman rulers did not hesitate to call Viking mercenaries for help to get rid of their enemies around Normandy, such as the king of the Franks himself. Olaf Haraldsson crossed

2924-440: The misnamed, miscredited, and misdescribed Magna de Naturis Philosophia . More recently, Gregor Maurach produced partial and complete editions of the text compiled from numerous manuscripts before it was fully realized that William had composed two separate editions, one during his youth and another revised around the time of Bernard's attacks on Abelard and others. According to Paul Edward Dutton 's tally, 68 manuscripts of

2992-481: The original edition and 16 of the revised edition are currently known to exist. The first edition of the De Philosophia Mundi was divided into four books, covering physics , astronomy , geography , meteorology , and medicine . The revised edition expanded the first book and divided it into three parts, making up six books altogether. William glosses the composition of the world as rooted in

3060-552: The passage of Plato's Timaeus stating that souls existed in the stars before birth, William opined that he really meant "nothing heretical, but the most profound philosophy sheltered in the covering of the words". He then glossed Plato's intended meaning as simply noting the accepted importance of astrology on human fate . William's chief work appears in manuscript as his Philosophy ( Philosophia ) but, owing to mistakes in transmission and comprehension, various recensions were published for centuries as Bede 's Four Books of

3128-475: The personal tutor of Geoffrey's 9 to 11-year-old son Henry, later King Henry   II of England . He also tutored Henry's brothers in the period from 1146 to 1149 and composed his Dragmaticon , a revision of his Philosophia in the form of a dialogue, sometime between 1144 and 1149. He dedicated it to Geoffrey. There are some hints in his works that he may have resumed teaching, possibly in Paris, during

3196-460: The region of the Irish Sea . There was initially much hostility between these Norwegian settlers and their new Danish overlords. These expansions brought the boundaries of Normandy roughly in line with those of the ecclesiastical province of Rouen . The Norman polity had to contend with the Frankish and Breton systems of power that already existed in Normandy. In the early 10th century, Normandy

3264-528: The royal demesne, Normandy retained some specificity. Norman law continued to serve as the basis for court decisions. In 1315, faced with the constant encroachments of royal power on the liberties of Normandy, the barons and towns pressed the Norman Charter on the king. This document did not provide autonomy to the province but protected it against arbitrary royal acts. The judgments of the Exchequer,

3332-472: The royal family. The last French duke of Normandy in this sense was Louis-Charles , duke from 1785 to 1792. The title "Duke of Normandy" continues to be used in an informal manner in the Channel Islands, to refer to the monarch of the United Kingdom. There is no definite end as to when the Duchy of Normandy (with its remnants in the Channel Islands) as a vassal of the English monarch became 'part' of

3400-457: The second son of Louis XVI , was again given the nominal title of 'Duke of Normandy' before the death of his elder brother in 1789. In the Channel Islands , the British monarch is known informally as the "Duke of Normandy", irrespective of whether or not the holder is male (as in the case of Queen Elizabeth II who was known by this title). The Channel Islands are the last remaining part of

3468-513: The sense that their number is—for humans—incalculably large. Discussing cosmology, William elaborates a geocentric universe . The terrestrial atmosphere is said to become less dense and colder as altitude increases. Its circulation is also compared to ocean currents . By the level of the moon, it has been replaced by the ether ; with Plato, he considers this to be a form of fire rather than Aristotle's separate element. The sun, moon, and five known planets followed their own motions while

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3536-423: The territory from other Vikings and that he and his men would convert to Christianity . Rollo's decision to convert and come to terms with the Franks came in the aftermath of his defeat at the battle of Chartres by Richard of Burgundy and Robert of Neustria (the future Robert I of France ) earlier in 911. The territory ceded to Rollo comprised the pagi of the Caux , Évrecin , Roumois and Talou . This

3604-546: The time, after his former teacher Bernard of Chartres . William was born around 1085 –1090 in a small village near Évreux , Normandy . From his surname, that village is generally taken to have been Conches although it was possibly nearby Tilleul instead, the location of his later grave. At the time, Normandy was still uneasily controlled by Norman England in notional homage to France . William studied under Bernard of Chartres in Chartres , Blois , and became

3672-573: The world, reason from God, and that memory preserved them both. Duchy of Normandy British Islands The Duchy of Normandy grew out of the 911 Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte between King Charles III of West Francia and the Viking leader Rollo . The duchy was named for its inhabitants, the Normans . From 1066 until 1204, as a result of the Norman Conquest of England ,

3740-531: Was a Compendium of Philosophy ( Compendium Philosophiae ) attributed to Hugh of St Victor . The "Honorius" recension being the most complete, it has become the general name for the work in modern scholarship. The correct title and attribution were finally discovered in 1722 by Remi-Casimir Oudin with additional points and considerations added by Charles Jourdain in 1838 and Jean-Barthélemy Hauréau in 1858. It has also been known as William's Lesser Philosophy ( Philosophia Minor ) by comparison with

3808-408: Was a medieval Norman - French scholastic philosopher who sought to expand the bounds of Christian humanism by studying secular works of classical literature and fostering empirical science . He was a prominent Chartrain (member of the School of Chartres ). John of Salisbury , a bishop of Chartres and former student of William's, refers to William as the most talented grammarian of

3876-462: Was a problem for the king since Charles was the puppet of the king's enemies. Normandy could thus serve as a basis for rebellion against the royal power. In 1469, therefore, Louis XI convinced his brother under duress to exchange Normandy for the Duchy of Guyenne (Aquitaine). Finally, at the request of the cowed Estates of Normandy and to signify that the duchy would not be ceded again, at a session of

3944-466: Was characterized by a diverse Scandinavian population interacting with the "local Frankish matrix" that existed in the region. In the end, the Normans stressed assimilation with the local population. In the 11th century, the anonymous author of the Miracles of Saint Wulfram referred to the formation of a Norman identity as "shaping [of] all races into one single people". According to some historians,

4012-529: Was cold and dry, water cold and moist, air hot and moist, and fire hot and dry. These traits compelled the atoms into certain movements, which he discusses in Aristotelian terms . In his later Dragmaticon , he responds to reductio ad absurdum objections against the infinities implicit in atomism with his belief that the atoms are infinitely divisible only in the sense that they are too minuscule for human apprehension and infinitely numerous only in

4080-485: Was essentially identical with the Holy Spirit , but had discussed the idea as a possibly valid reading. With Abelard's writings successfully condemned by Bernard at the Council of Sens for a litany of heresies the same year, William withdrew from public teaching. William's exemption from prosecution alongside his production of more orthodox revisions of some of his previous works, his departure from public teaching, and

4148-446: Was not a political or monetary unit. According to many academics, "the formation of a new aristocracy, monastic reform, episcopal revival, written bureaucracy, saints’ cults – with necessarily different timelines" were as important if not more than the ducal narrative espoused by Dudo. The formation of the Norman state also coincided with the creation of an origin myth for the Norman ducal family through Dudo, such as Rollo being compared to

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4216-640: Was primarily based in Paris and Chartres. He composed his De Philosophia Mundi around the period 1125 to 1130. He taught John of Salisbury at Chartres in 1137 and 1138, and John later considered him the most accomplished grammarian of his time or just after his master Bernard. John describes his method of teaching in detail, noting it followed Bernard and both followed Quintilian 's Institutio Oratoria . There were lectures on classical with questions on parsing, scansion , and composition. Students practiced writing prose and poetry on classical models and undertook frequent discussion on set subjects with

4284-474: Was still current in the 12th century, when it was used in the Roman de Rou . Marriage more danico ("in the Danish manner"), that is, without any ecclesiastical ceremony in accordance with old Norse custom, was recognised as legal in Normandy and in the Norman church. The first three dukes of Normandy all practised it. Scandinavian influence is especially apparent in laws relating to waters. The duke possessed

4352-416: Was territory formerly known as the county of Rouen, and which would become Upper Normandy . A royal diploma of 918 confirms the donation of 911, using the verb adnuo ("I grant"). There is no evidence that Rollo owed any service or oath to the king for his lands, nor that there were any legal means for the king to take them back: they were granted outright. Likewise, Rollo does not seem to have been created

4420-472: Was the key to metaphysics . For the Modistae, grammatical forms, the modi significandi of verbs, nouns, and adjectives, comprise the deep ontological structure of language, which objectively reflects reality. Their work predicted the concept of universal grammar , suggesting that universal grammatical rules may be extracted from all living languages. Roger Bacon may have given the movement inspiration with his observation that all languages are built upon

4488-604: Was the product of an extensive series of mistakes based on a poor edition of Vincent of Beauvais 's Mirror of Nature that began with an extract from William of Conches's work. William is also credited with numerous glosses on classic texts. He wrote surviving overviews of commentaries on Boethius 's Consolation of Philosophy ( Glosae super Boetium ) and Plato 's Timaeus ( Glosae super Platonem ); 2 editions of his own commentary on Priscian 's Institutes of Grammar ( Glosae super Priscianum ); and one or two editions of commentary on Macrobius 's Commentary on

4556-453: Was then taken as proof that women derived carnal pleasure from the act despite their lack of rational consent. This work influenced Jean de Meung , the author of the second part of the Roman de la Rose . William's discussion of psychology was expressed in terms of the soul , which he considered to provide various powers when joined to the body. He believed that sense perception derived from

4624-515: Was writing a century after the event. The exact date of the treaty is unknown, but it was likely in the autumn of 911. By the agreement, Charles III , king of the West Franks , granted to the Viking leader Rollo some lands along the lower Seine that were apparently already under Danish control. Whether Rollo himself was a Dane or a Norwegian is not known. For his part, Rollo agreed to defend

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