Mongbwalu is a small town in the Djugu Territory of the Ituri Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo .
63-535: Before the Belgians arrived in the region the local Banyali people used gold to make jewellery, but otherwise did not see the metal as commercially valuable. The Belgians found gold about 30 kilometres (19 mi) from Mongbwalu in 1903 and began commercial exploitation of Kilo-Moto gold resources in 1905. From 1926 to 1966, mining operations were controlled by the Societe des Mines d'Or de Kilo-Moto (SOKIMO) . During
126-465: A corresponding boom in ASM for minerals containing cobalt. Globally, artisanal mining contributes 17% to 20%, or between 380 and 450, metric tonnes of annual gold production . This gold input is equally a significant contribution to both the international gold industry and the economy for a given community. The ASM sector produces 80% of the global sapphire supply, 20% of global diamond supply, 26% of
189-763: A crucial part of the global supply chain for critical minerals, some state actors have attempted to regulate the entry of ASM-sourced minerals into their markets. Part of the Dodd-Frank Act , passed by the United States Congress in 2010, required companies to disclose if their products used materials sourced from ASM operations in the Democratic Republic of the Congo or the Great Lakes region of central Africa. The Kimberley Process
252-422: A cut of their output in exchange for mineshaft access. In addition, ASM has sometimes been used as a source of financing for money laundering operations, or militant or terrorist groups, given that ASM operations often take place in remote areas with low government presence, such as in the case of blood diamonds . Globally, an average of 30% of ASM workers are women. While this is a much higher percentage than
315-435: A lack of formal education and experience. Bringing ASM into the formal economy through legalization could theoretically benefit governments in that they reduce illicit financial transactions, can collect taxes on ASM income, and often see a subsequent reduction in crime in these regions. However, ASM is by nature dispersed and tends to be located in motre remote areas that make it difficult to completely formalize. Formalization
378-612: A large number of Chinese migrant workers to Africa. In 2013, widespread conflict and violence between illegal Chinese artisanal mine workers and Ghanaian natives were reported. Ghanaian officials claimed tens of thousands of Chinese immigrants were working in illegal artisanal gold mines, damaging land, polluting drinking water, and destroying agricultural lands. This triggered violence and armed attacks between Chinese groups and local Ghanaian villagers, causing widespread unrest and deaths. By July 2013, Ghana had deported over 4,000 Chinese citizens working illegally in artisanal mines. Pact
441-533: A major contributor to environmental degradation and pollution, especially given the lack of government oversight ASM entails. Due to the inherent digging of soil and sluicing involved in artisanal mining, water siltation , erosion , and soil degradation can be an issue in rivers used for mining. Rivers are also commonly diverted as a way to access mineral rich riverbeds, or are clogged by mine tailing heaps. The digging of mines can also dig up and spread harmful heavy metals, such as lead, that are located within
504-556: A mixture of gold and mercury called amalgam that allows for easier gold separation. Once mercury and gold are combined to create amalgam, the amalgam is typically burned with a blowtorch or over an open flame to separate the mercury from the gold. Since gold mines are almost always set up near rivers, often excess chemicals are distributed directly into waterways. Once it becomes imbedded in soil or water, mercury becomes methylmercury that can easily accumulate in aquatic ecosystems through bioaccumulation and biomagnification , harming both
567-519: A more than 90% reduction in child labor at targeted mines, using novel approaches including various community governance committees, awareness-raising and positive parenting skills training, peer exchanges, traditional song and dance, sport, children's interactive forums and traditional signage and radio media strategies. Terre des Hommes works on addressing child labour in the mica mines in Madagascar. Artisanal mining has been accused of being
630-471: A population of about 50,000, mostly Banyali and Lendu , but with people from many other ethnic groups who have been attracted by the gold mining opportunities. Nearby villages include Kilo, Kobu, Lipri, Bambu and Mbijo. Around 25,000 to 30,000 men, women and children in the region around Mongbwalu were engaged in gold mining, transport and processing. Much of the gold extracted in Mongbwalu is traded across
693-685: A result, child labour and a large number of fatal accidents have been reported in artisanal mines (especially coal mines, gold mines, and stone mines). Improving monitoring and reporting on occupational health and safety is an important first step, as well as training on standards and skills. A recent project of the tin working group of IDH addressed these challenges in the Indonesian tin ASM sector. Key results included sector dialogue and alignment, improved regulatory framework, awareness-raising to improve supply chain practices and training guidelines for more responsible ASM techniques. Child labour
SECTION 10
#1732772148744756-487: A variety of methods to locate minerals, including historical knowledge, the observation of other minerals or rocks, or technology such as mineral detectors and audio-based reflection seismology surveys . In addition, ASM targets a variety of minerals in addition to metals, including bauxite , coltan , cobalt , coal , sand, gravel, and dimension stones . The rise in the price of certain minerals, such as precious stones or precious metals , has driven rural residents in
819-658: A wide range of physical hazards to workers including the use of hazardous materials such as mercury , lead , uranium, and cyanide , poorly constructed pits/shafts/tunnels prone to collapses/landslides/flooding/lack of ventilation, poor waste management leading to water contamination and diseases, lack of PPE (personal protective equipment) or training in proper use leading to silicosis and other health risks, impacts related to dust/noise/exhaustive labour, lack of potable water/latrines/sanitation facilities leading to gastrointestinal and other diseases, and physical risks from inappropriate use and maintenance of mechanical equipment. As
882-813: Is a blanket term for a type of subsistence mining involving a miner who may or may not be officially employed by a mining company but works independently, mining minerals using their own resources, usually by hand. While there is no completely coherent definition for ASM, artisanal mining generally includes miners who are not officially employed by a mining company and use their own resources to mine. As such, they are part of an informal economy . ASM also includes, in small-scale mining, enterprises or individuals that employ workers for mining, but who generally still use similar manually-intensive methods as artisanal miners (such as working with hand tools). In addition, ASM can be characterized as distinct from large-scale mining (LSM) by less efficient extraction of pure minerals from
945-689: Is a nonprofit international development organization founded in 1971, working on the ground in nearly 40 countries to improve the lives of those who are challenged by poverty and marginalization. Pact's "Mines to Markets" program (M2M) uses an integrated, holistic approach to help resource-dependent communities improve their lives. Specializing in areas including health and safety in mining, human rights, traceability and transparency, economic empowerment among miners, mercury abatement, child labor reduction, mineral certification and ethical sourcing, it helps communities gain lasting benefit from natural resources by using them more sustainably. It also improves governance in
1008-476: Is a similar international attempt to prevent diamonds mined illegally in conflict zones in participating countries from entering the global market. Improving access to markets and financial products tailored to ASM including credit guarantees and private and public loan facilities, is critical to improving the sector's impact, resilience and sustainability. ASM can sometimes cause conflict between migrant workers and locals. For instance, artisanal mining has attracted
1071-734: Is an important socio-economic sector for the rural poor in many developing nations, many of whom have few other options for supporting their families. Over 90% of the world's mining workforce are engaged in ASM, with an estimated 40.5 million people directly engaged in ASM, from over 80 countries in the global south . More than 150 million people indirectly depend on ASM for their livelihood. 70–80% of small-scale miners are informal, and approximately 30% are women, although this ranges in certain countries and commodities from 5% to 80%. Artisanal mining can include activities as simple as panning for gold in rivers, to as complex as development of underground workings and small-scale processing plants. Miners use
1134-422: Is an independent, mission-driven initiative that supports artisanal and small-scale (ASM) miners globally. Established in 2004, the organization's mission is to enhance social and economic wellbeing, strengthen environmental protection and establish fair governance in ASM communities by formalizing the ASM sector. To achieve its mission, ARM has created an exceptional set of social and environmental standards known as
1197-417: Is common for miners to hunt, fish, and collect other forest resources for food and medicine, or as a way to supplement their income. Mercury contamination because of ASM has significant impacts on both human and wildlife health for ASM, particularly in gold mining, through either inhaling mercury gas, or eating flora and fauna contaminated with mercury. When mining for gold, mercury is commonly used to create
1260-416: Is declining. Many of the rivers have been diverted to form mudflats where men, women and children can sift the mud to look for flecks of gold. Primitive dredging machines are also used to suck up mud from the river bottoms to be sifted for gold. Most miners earn a precarious living working long hours in dangerous and unhealthy conditions. Artisanal mining Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM)
1323-553: Is focused on professionalizing the sector so that ASM operations can adopt socially responsible and environmentally sound methods of mining and gold processing. There is a focus on professionalization because it drives many improvements including allowing more wealth to be generated, and more of the wealth to be captured at the local level and re-invested in the development of its people and their needs. The AGC accomplishes their goals of professionalization through four main approaches: teaching and delivering improved practices to miners in
SECTION 20
#17327721487441386-681: Is housed at the World Bank headquarters in Washington, D.C. Resourced by a multi-donor trust fund, CASM receives its core funding from the UK and the World Bank, supplemented by program support from Japan, amongst others, Canada, France and the US. Several companies, trade associations and charitable funds, such as Tiffany & Co Foundation, also contribute finances to CASM's work program. CASM funding has leveraged significant additional funding for work in
1449-507: Is legal, it is often still very difficult for ASM workers to obtain licenses. The license process might be very long, limited to citizens of the state in which it is located, or very costly. As a result, even when licenses are technically available, many ASM operators will choose to remain informal. The informal nature of ASM contributes to ASM's vulnerability to being controlled by armed actors such as organized crime, its environmental pollution, and poor safety standards for miners. ASM present
1512-525: Is made more difficult by the control that armed groups, from militants to organized crime organizations, have over many ASM operations. The majority of miners engaged in ASM miners worldwide do not have legal title, and oftentimes the regulatory frameworks for national mining policy work to exclude or restrict ASM practices. Currently, the informal nature of ASM in many places prevents the state from taxing income gained from ASM, as well as from setting tariff rates on exported minerals. In addition, even if ASM
1575-461: Is noted in the introduction to this document "The fact that much of ASM activity occurs outside regulatory frameworks – whether illegal or not – can also present significant challenges for companies and regulators. There can be significant tension between ASM miners and their own governments – with companies caught in the middle." The guidance document, which is put forward as a pilot was produced in partnership with Communities and Small-Scale Mining,
1638-452: Is pervasive across many ASM contexts, and integrated approaches are needed to target its root causes. Due to its hazardous nature to children's safety, health (physical and mental) and moral development, mining is considered one of the "worst forms" of child labour as defined by the ILO . There are at least one million child miners across the world, although the number is probably much higher due to
1701-648: Is required. Governments, research and training institutions, the private sector, consultants, and civil society should contribute to open databases, integrate ASM into national census and surveys, and provide for improved policy and transparency. The DELVE database project is establishing a global platform for ASM data. DELVE's vision is "a world in which artisanal and small-scale mining is recognized as an important contributor to global development". The platform collects, analyzes and shares data using open-source principles, which informs policy-making and interventions, and ultimately improves miners' lives. An annual ASM State of
1764-529: The Fairmined certification . ARM offers extensive and continuous support and training to ASM communities to help them reach the standards, achieve the Fairmined certification and invest in community development. Furthermore, ARM serves as an intermediary for ASM communities, which gives them the opportunity to respond to international markets demanding ethical metals and jewelry. Since 2004, ARM has facilitated
1827-614: The 1980s and 1990s. Industrial gold production was affected by the First Congo War from October 1996 to May 1997 and halted by the Second Congo War from August 1998 to May 2003. In 2002 and 2003 there were a series battles between rival armed groups over Mongbwalu in which 2,000 civilians died. In some cases civilians were killed because they were Hema or Lendu people. The town changed hands five times. The Nationalist and Integrationist Front (FNI) Lendu militia emerged
1890-640: The 8 million people seasonally or permanently employed in ASM is estimated to use income gained from ASM to support an average of 5-6 other people (an estimated 45 million in total). ASM also includes ancillary industries such as shipping and processing ore not directly related to the act of mining that can provide additional jobs. Although there are large industrial mines worldwide, artisanal mines employ many more people. In 2017, while 7 million people worldwide were employed in large-scale mining, around 40 million people were employed in ASM, typically workers who are not eligible for employment in industrial mining due to
1953-577: The ACG helps miners and their communities to work and live in a safer and healthier environment, and responsibly produce gold. Under those conditions, the sector can play a vital role in relieving poverty, generating inclusive and sustainable economic growth, and creating full and productive employment and decent work. The AGC has experience in more than 25 countries and, as of 2018, had active projects in 12 countries: Peru, Mongolia, Myanmar, Indonesia, Lao, Burkina Faso, Mali, Senegal, Gabon, Ecuador, Papua New Guinea,
Mongbwalu - Misplaced Pages Continue
2016-815: The ASM sector. In 2008, CASM produced a report on Mineral Certification. This report discussed the opportunity of using certification of origin and certification of ethical quality to stimulate sustainable development in artisanal mining communities. The International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour , a program of the International Labour Organization (ILO), includes a sector of activity in "Mining and Quarrying". It notes that child labour "can still be seen in small-scale mines of Asia, Africa, Latin America, and even parts of Europe". The program approach focuses particularly on
2079-857: The International Finance Corporation's Oil, Gas, and Mining Sustainable Community Development Fund and ICMM. In September 2018, over 500 delegates from more than 70 countries gathered in Livingstone, Zambia for the International Conference on Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining and Quarrying . The enormous potential of the sector was discussed in 36 workshops, highlighting ASM's ability to reduce poverty, interlock with agricultural livelihoods, and stimulate jobs, markets and wealth creation in rural communities, as well as national economic growth through taxation and exports of raw and value-added minerals. A key output
2142-632: The Philippines, and Mozambique. An important focus of the AGC is to help countries fulfill their obligations under the Minamata Convention on Mercury (to eliminate the use of mercury by the artisanal mining sector) by working with governments to develop National Action Plans (NAPs) and to pilot concrete field models that can be replicated to greater and greater numbers of artisanal mining communities. The Alliance for Responsible Mining (ARM)
2205-460: The Sector review summarizes what is known about the sector, including its scale, impact, and cost. Partially due to ASM's status as part of the informal economy, ASM ventures often lack access to affordable and tailored financial products, which leads to stagnation, eventual abandonment of ASM business ventures, and contributes to the ASM poverty cycle. Since ASM has also begun to be recognized as
2268-427: The actual ore extraction while women tend to handle ore processing. This leads to women often being more exposed to more of the chemical hazards in the ASM process, including cyanide-based ore-processing and dust exposure from cleaning of tailings . Furthermore, the processing of ore can receive decreased wages compared with ore extraction, often leading to a gender pay gap between men and women engaged in ASM. Due to
2331-487: The border to Uganda . Gold is found in river beds and topsoils as flecks or small nuggets of 90-95% pure gold, and is also extracted from crushed rocks obtained from underground and open-pit mines. The Adidi underground mine directly or indirectly employed about 5,000 people in various jobs. In December 2007 these people were thrown out of work when the Orientale Province governor Medard Autsai Asenga ordered
2394-649: The capacity to lift people out of poverty, improve health and environmental conditions, and create better economic conditions for entire regions through job creation and supplementary income. ASM is particularly relevant for people in rural communities. Many poor populations in rural areas of the global south lack the employment opportunities that urban areas include, which ASM can supplement. Furthermore, neoliberal structural adjustment programs have disproportionately targeted urban centers as opposed to rural areas. For instance, in Sub-Saharan Africa, each of
2457-473: The colonial era about 1.3 million ounces of gold were extracted from the Mongbwalu area. Soon after independence, in 1967 the government nationalized SOKIMO. Production quickly declined due to lack of investment and exploration, dropping to under 15,000 ounces per year. In 1981, mining in the region was opened to private enterprise, causing rapid growth in artisanal mining as well as formal commercial mining by foreign companies. Gold mining resumed its decline in
2520-552: The countries where it works, strengthening local, regional and national institutions. M2M programs currently operate in 12 countries, 10 of which are in Africa. The Artisanal Gold Council (AGC), based in Victoria, British Columbia, is a not-for-profit organization dedicated to improving the opportunities, environment and health of the millions of people involved in the artisanal gold mining sector in over 80 countries worldwide. It
2583-432: The development of a solid knowledge base and assessment, and working with partners for delivery of programs. A significant issue in artisanal and small-scale arises when larger mining companies gain rights to develop deposits that are worked by artisanal mining. The International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM) has produced a guidance note for companies engaging with the artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) sector. As
Mongbwalu - Misplaced Pages Continue
2646-421: The difficulty of collecting data. In addition, ASM, by employing children, can prevent children from receiving education. This is especially in cases of migratory ASM or where agricultural land is converted to ASM land use, such as in the northern districts of Burkina Faso. The Pact's Children out of Mining ( Swahili : Watoto Inje ya Mungoti ) project in the Democratic Republic of Congo has helped to achieve
2709-470: The earth through mining . There are two senses in which the term is used. In its narrowest sense, a miner is someone who works at the rock face ; cutting, blasting, or otherwise working and removing the rock. In a broader sense, a "miner" is anyone working within a mine, not just a worker at the rock face. Renowned as one of the most dangerous jobs in the world - and for good reason. Cave-ins , explosions , toxic air , and extreme temperatures are some of
2772-415: The ecosystem and humans who fish from it. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the observed effects on animals exposed to high levels of methylmercury include mortality, reduced fertility, slower growth rates, and abnormal behavior that affects survival. Chronic inhalation of mercury vapor from ASM also has negative health effects. Due to the migratory practices of many ASM workers, and
2835-413: The field; working with governments to creating enabling policy frameworks that support the development of artisanal miners; creating sustainable markets and sustainable finance mechanisms for artisanal miners and their products; and creating and sharing knowledge about the sector (R&D and outreach). At field sites, by focusing on methodologies that forego the use of mercury and other toxic chemicals,
2898-405: The forms of particular equipment, symbolism, music, and the like. Different functions of the individual miner. Many of the roles are specific to a type of mining, such as coal mining. Roles considered to be "miners" in the narrower sense have included: Other roles within mines that did not involve breaking rock (and thus fit the broader definition) have included: In addition to miners working in
2961-472: The global tantalum supply, and 25% of global tin production. ASM also supplies development minerals (minerals used for construction, such as bauxite, sand, gravel, coltan, coal, and dimension stones) for domestic markets. Instead of being exported abroad, these minerals are used for construction, energy production, and other purposes in the home country of the ASM operation. ASM serves as additional supplemental income for rural communities in many parts of
3024-509: The global south to increasingly turn to artisanal mining as supplementary income, as higher mineral prices yield better returns for those engaged in ASM. This is reflected in the growth of the ASM industry. For instance, the 400% rise in the price of gold from 2002 (US $ 274/oz) to 2012 (US $ 1,230/oz) appears to be reflected as an increase in the number of miners engaged in ASM. Similarly, an increase in demand for lithium-ion battery -powered products has led to increased demand for cobalt, leading to
3087-515: The global south, with miners either establishing mutually beneficial relationships with farmers, or being farmers themselves. This is particularly the case for individuals in rural communities who lack urban economic opportunities. As part of seasonal ASM, for instance, farmers may use income they gained from ASM in the dry season to finance the purchasing of agricultural equipment or seed in the rainy season, or might also sell surplus crops to those already engaged in ASM. ASM, if properly regulated, has
3150-468: The large-scale mining (LSM) sector, where less than 10% of mining employees are female, women engaged in ASM generally have reduced access to mining resources, including land, finance, and tools. Many female ASM workers continue to work at mining sites even while pregnant and nursing young children. In addition, there is commonly a gendered division of labor between men and women engaged in ASM. Especially in settings involving mineshafts, men tend to handle
3213-457: The local hospital and schools, and has helped with road repair and drainage works. After further negotiations with OKIMO, in 2010 AngloGold Ashanti began a feasibility study for a proposed mine near Mongbwalu. Mongbwalu lies within the Kilo-Moto region and has long been a center of gold mining, with three nearby underground industrial mines: Adidi , Senzere and Makala. As of 2008 the town had
SECTION 50
#17327721487443276-452: The mine to close. The abandoned Senzere and Makala underground mines are still being worked informally in extremely difficult and dangerous conditions. In 2007 there were about 33 pit mining sites near Mongbwalu, each with several pits, some with several thousand miners. The pits may be up to 30 metres (98 ft) deep. Mud slides and flooding are commonplace. Alluvial mining is also practiced in rivers and riparian areas, although productivity
3339-412: The most perilous hazards observed to take place in underground mining, as well as the overall long-term health effects of underground mining conditions. In some countries, miners lack social guarantees and in case of injury may be left to cope without assistance. In regions with a long mining tradition, many communities have developed cultural traditions and aspects specific to the various regions, in
3402-430: The ore, lower wages, decreased occupational safety, benefits, and health standards for miners, and a lack of environmental protection measures. Artisanal miners often undertake the activity of mining seasonally. For example, crops are planted in the rainy season , and mining is pursued in the dry season . However, they also frequently travel to mining areas and work year-round. There are four broad types of ASM: ASM
3465-502: The positive transformation of multiple ASM communities in Latin America and is currently expanding its efforts to Africa and Asia. CASM is a global networking and coordination facility with a stated mission "to reduce poverty by improving the environmental, social and economic performance of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries". CASM is currently chaired by the UK's Department for International Development and
3528-520: The remoteness and lack of significant government oversight in ASM-dominated regions, ASM migrant workers are at particular risk of being controlled by organized crime groups that extort access to mines, especially when ASM is illegal in the given country. For example, in Gauteng and Mpumalanga Provinces, South Africa, migrant miners are coerced into giving local gangs, some highly militarized,
3591-575: The rights to concession 40, starting exploration in November 2003 and expanding its activities as the UN and DRC government regained and consolidated control over the region. In a major 2005 report, Human Rights Watch accused AngloGold Ashanti Kilo of providing assistance to the FNI during the 2003-2005 period in exchange for gold concessions. The company denies any wrongdoing. The company has provided assistance to
3654-704: The seam, a mine employs other workers in duties in the sea. In addition to the office staff of various sorts, these may include: Mining engineers use the principles of math and science to develop philosophical solutions to technical problems for miners. In most cases, a bachelor's degree in engineering, mining engineering or geological engineering is required. Because technology is constantly changing, miners and mining engineers need to continue their education. The basics of mining engineering includes finding, extracting, and preparing minerals, metals and coal. These mined products are used for electric power generation and manufacturing industries. Mining engineers also supervise
3717-970: The soil, which then affect wildlife and people. Mining can also result in Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): if abandoned mines are left alone, water reservoirs can oxidize pyrite in the soil, leading to acidification, which can then leach into the environment, as was observed in abandoned mines in the Gauteng province of South Africa. The conservation of forests is also a great concern, as many artisanal mining operations take place in and around forests that are home to vast amounts of biodiversity. One assessment indicates that almost three-quarters of active mining and exploratory sites overlap with areas of high conservation value and high watershed stress. It has also been reported that some mining operations also work within protected areas. Artisanal mining operations often cut down trees to clear space for their camps, and it
3780-546: The transient and unregulated nature of ASM, ASM camps often have high rates of prostitution, as many women especially who migrate to ASM locations have no other choice to make a living. As a result, the prevalence of HIV/AIDS is particularly high in ASM-based areas, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Data on ASM is inadequate, which limits an understanding of the sector and appropriate policy measures. Collaborative and transparent knowledge-sharing, data collection, and analysis
3843-412: The voices of artisanal and small-scale miners finally engaged in international policy dialogues, and especially those of women, there is hope that in five years' time, a formalized, government-supported and socially, economically and environmentally productive ASM sector will have started to emerge." Miner A miner is a person who extracts ore , coal , chalk , clay , or other minerals from
SECTION 60
#17327721487443906-414: The winner. The FNI controlled Mongbwalu and its gold mines until the middle of 2005, using the gold to pay its troops and to buy supplies and weapons. Concession 40 covers 8,191 square kilometres (3,163 sq mi) surrounding Mongbwalu, and includes the underground Adidi, Makala and Senzere mines. AngloGold Ashanti Kilo, a joint venture between AngloGold Ashanti and the government-owned OKIMO, gained
3969-481: Was the signing of the Mosi-oa-Tunya Declaration on ASM and Quarrying, which reaffirms the central role of ASM for "enhanced livelihoods, employment creation, poverty reduction and sustainable development". As one delegate said of the conference: "Making these visions a reality will take time, and much change still needs to happen at all levels of governance in the process of formalization. But with
#743256