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78-651: The Montauk Project is a conspiracy theory that alleges there were a series of United States government projects conducted at Camp Hero or Montauk Air Force Station in Montauk , New York , for the purpose of developing psychological warfare techniques and exotic research including time travel . The story of the Montauk Project originated in the Montauk Project series of books by Preston Nichols which intermixes those stories with stories about
156-440: A civil wrong . The term generally connotes, or implies, wrongdoing or illegality on the part of the conspirators, as it is commonly believed that people would not need to conspire to engage in activities that were lawful and ethical, or to which no one would object. There are some coordinated activities that people engage in with secrecy that are not generally thought of as conspiracies. For example, intelligence agencies such as
234-427: A conspiracy ; it refers to a hypothesized conspiracy with specific characteristics, including but not limited to opposition to the mainstream consensus among those who are qualified to evaluate its accuracy, such as scientists or historians . Conspiracy theories tend to be internally consistent and correlate with each other; they are generally designed to resist falsification either by evidence against them or
312-538: A famine , at a time when three million people in the country were suffering from hunger . Conspiracy theories are a significant obstacle to improvements in public health , encouraging opposition to such public health measures as vaccination and water fluoridation . They have been linked to outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases . Other effects of conspiracy theories include reduced trust in scientific evidence , radicalization and ideological reinforcement of extremist groups, and negative consequences for
390-489: A scientific theory can be disproven by a single perceived deficiency, even though such events are extremely rare. In addition, both disregarding the claims and attempting to address them will be interpreted as proof of a conspiracy. Other conspiracist arguments may not be scientific; for example, in response to the IPCC Second Assessment Report in 1996, much of the opposition centered on promoting
468-413: A "crippled epistemology", in which a person encounters or accepts very few relevant sources of information. A conspiracy theory is more likely to appear justified to people with a limited "informational environment" who only encounter misleading information. These people may be " epistemologically isolated" in self-enclosed networks . From the perspective of people within these networks, disconnected from
546-422: A "shallow" theorist observes an event and asks Cui bono ? ("Who benefits?"), jumping to the conclusion that a posited beneficiary is responsible for covertly influencing events. On the other hand, the "deep" conspiracy theorist begins with a hunch and then seeks out evidence. Rothbard describes this latter activity as a matter of confirming with certain facts one's initial paranoia. Belief in conspiracy theories
624-432: A "theory", but over time, "conspiracy" and "theory" have become decoupled, as modern conspiracism is often without any kind of theory behind it. Jesse Walker (2013) has identified five kinds of conspiracy theories: Michael Barkun has identified three classifications of conspiracy theory: Murray Rothbard argues in favor of a model that contrasts "deep" conspiracy theories to "shallow" ones. According to Rothbard,
702-399: A black-and-white world in which good is struggling against evil. The general public is cast as the victim of organised persecution, and the motives of the alleged conspirators often verge on pure maniacal evil. At the very least, the conspirators are said to have an almost inhuman disregard for the basic liberty and well-being of the general population. More grandiose conspiracy theories portray
780-515: A closed system that is unfalsifiable , and therefore "a matter of faith rather than proof." Conspiracy comes from the Latin word conspiratio . While conspiratio can mean "plot" or "conspiracy", it can also be translated as "unity" and "agreement", in the context of a group an example of this "Kirri and Adele commenced the conspiracy at the secret thursday gin meeting". Conspiratio comes from conspiro which, while still meaning "conspiracy" in
858-514: A consequence, the conspiracy becomes a matter of faith rather than something that can be proven or disproven. Studies have linked belief in conspiracy theories to distrust of authority and political cynicism . Some researchers suggest that conspiracist ideation —belief in conspiracy theories—may be psychologically harmful or pathological. Such belief is correlated with psychological projection , paranoia , and Machiavellianism . Psychologists usually attribute belief in conspiracy theories to
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#1732791310943936-501: A generalized dismissal. Conspiracy theory rhetoric exploits several important cognitive biases , including proportionality bias , attribution bias , and confirmation bias . Their arguments often take the form of asking reasonable questions, but without providing an answer based on strong evidence. Conspiracy theories are most successful when proponents can gather followers from the general public, such as in politics, religion and journalism. These proponents may not necessarily believe
1014-427: A lack of evidence for them. Political scientist Michael Barkun has described conspiracy theories as relying on the view that the universe is governed by design, and embody three principles: nothing happens by accident, nothing is as it seems, and everything is connected. Another common feature is that conspiracy theories evolve to incorporate whatever evidence exists against them, so that they become, as Barkun writes,
1092-402: A lack of evidence for them. They are reinforced by circular reasoning : both evidence against the conspiracy and absence of evidence for it are misinterpreted as evidence of its truth. Stephan Lewandowsky observes "This interpretation relies on the notion that, the stronger the evidence against a conspiracy, the more the conspirators must want people to believe their version of events." As
1170-480: A number of psychopathological conditions such as paranoia , schizotypy , narcissism , and insecure attachment , or to a form of cognitive bias called " illusory pattern perception ". It has also been linked with the so-called Dark triad personality types, whose common feature is lack of empathy . However, a 2020 review article found that most cognitive scientists view conspiracy theorizing as typically nonpathological, given that unfounded belief in conspiracy
1248-408: A political sense, conspiracy refers to a group of people united in the goal of subverting established political power structures. This can take the form of usurping or altering them, or even continually illegally profiteering from certain activities in a way that weakens the establishment with help from various political authorities. Depending on the circumstances, a conspiracy may also be a crime or
1326-458: A procedural objection to the report's creation. Specifically, it was claimed that part of the procedure reflected a conspiracy to silence dissenters, which served as motivation for opponents of the report and successfully redirected a significant amount of the public discussion away from the science. Historically, conspiracy theories have been closely linked to prejudice , witch hunts , wars , and genocides . They are often strongly believed by
1404-404: A reduction in conspiracy beliefs. Other possible strategies to mitigate the effect of conspiracy theories include education, media literacy, and increasing governmental openness and transparency. Due to the relationship between conspiracy theories and political extremism, the academic literature on deradicalization is also important. One approach describes conspiracy theories as resulting from
1482-488: A result of a conspiracy between interested parties; spec. a belief that some covert but influential agency (typically political in motivation and oppressive in intent) is responsible for an unexplained event". It cites a 1909 article in The American Historical Review as the earliest usage example, although it also appeared in print for several decades before. The earliest known usage was by
1560-463: A series of books, known as the Montauk Project series, along with Peter Moon, whose real name is Vincent Barbarick. The primary topic of the Montauk Project concerns the alleged activities at Montauk Point. These center on topics including United States government/military experiments in fields such as time travel, teleportation, mind control, contact with extraterrestrial life, and staging faked Apollo Moon landings , framed as developments that followed
1638-648: A stigmatized mode of thought that separates them from the masses who believe the official account. Michael Barkun describes a conspiracy theory as a "template imposed upon the world to give the appearance of order to events". Real conspiracies, even very simple ones, are difficult to conceal and routinely experience unexpected problems. In contrast, conspiracy theories suggest that conspiracies are unrealistically successful and that groups of conspirators, such as bureaucracies , can act with near-perfect competence and secrecy. The causes of events or situations are simplified to exclude complex or interacting factors, as well as
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#17327913109431716-417: A study conducted in 2016 found that 10% of Americans think the chemtrail conspiracy theory is "completely true" and 20–30% think it is "somewhat true". This puts "the equivalent of 120 million Americans in the 'chemtrails are real' camp". Belief in conspiracy theories has therefore become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists and experts in folklore . Conspiracy theories are widely present on
1794-415: Is an explanation for an event or situation that asserts the existence of a conspiracy (generally by powerful sinister groups, often political in motivation), when other explanations are more probable. The term generally has a negative connotation , implying that the appeal of a conspiracy theory is based in prejudice, emotional conviction, or insufficient evidence. A conspiracy theory is distinct from
1872-422: Is associated with biases in reasoning, such as the conjunction fallacy . Clare Birchall at King's College London describes conspiracy theory as a "form of popular knowledge or interpretation". The use of the word 'knowledge' here suggests ways in which conspiracy theory may be considered in relation to legitimate modes of knowing. The relationship between legitimate and illegitimate knowledge, Birchall claims,
1950-515: Is closer than common dismissals of conspiracy theory contend. Theories involving multiple conspirators that are proven to be correct, such as the Watergate scandal , are usually referred to as investigative journalism or historical analysis rather than conspiracy theory. Bjerg (2016) writes: "the way we normally use the term conspiracy theory excludes instances where the theory has been generally accepted as true. The Watergate scandal serves as
2028-418: Is common across both historical and contemporary cultures, and may arise from innate human tendencies towards gossip, group cohesion, and religion. One historical review of conspiracy theories concluded that "Evidence suggests that the aversive feelings that people experience when in crisis—fear, uncertainty, and the feeling of being out of control—stimulate a motivation to make sense of the situation, increasing
2106-459: Is correlated with antigovernmental orientations and a low sense of political efficacy, with conspiracy believers perceiving a governmental threat to individual rights and displaying a deep skepticism that who one votes for really matters. Conspiracy theories are often commonly believed, some even being held by the majority of the population. A broad cross-section of Americans today gives credence to at least some conspiracy theories. For instance,
2184-474: Is generally based not on evidence, but in the faith of the believer. Noam Chomsky contrasts conspiracy theory to institutional analysis which focuses mostly on the public, long-term behavior of publicly known institutions, as recorded in, for example, scholarly documents or mainstream media reports. Conspiracy theory conversely posits the existence of secretive coalitions of individuals and speculates on their alleged activities. Belief in conspiracy theories
2262-401: Is generally of low quality. For example, conspiracy theories are often dependent on eyewitness testimony , despite its unreliability, while disregarding objective analyses of the evidence. Conspiracy theories are not able to be falsified and are reinforced by fallacious arguments . In particular, the logical fallacy circular reasoning is used by conspiracy theorists: both evidence against
2340-836: Is much more difficult to convince people who already believe in conspiracy theories. Conspiracist belief systems are not based on external evidence, but instead use circular logic where every belief is supported by other conspiracist beliefs. In addition, conspiracy theories have a "self-sealing" nature, in which the types of arguments used to support them make them resistant to questioning from others. Characteristics of successful strategies for reaching conspiracy theorists have been divided into several broad categories: 1) Arguments can be presented by "trusted messengers", such as people who were formerly members of an extremist group. 2) Since conspiracy theorists think of themselves as people who value critical thinking, this can be affirmed and then redirected to encourage being more critical when analyzing
2418-438: Is not considered a conspiracy because this is considered a legitimate part of the sport. Furthermore, a conspiracy must be engaged in knowingly. The continuation of social traditions that work to the advantage of certain groups and to the disadvantage of certain other groups, though possibly unethical, is not a conspiracy if participants in the practice are not carrying it forward for the purpose of perpetuating this advantage. On
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2496-489: Is not simply a conspiracy , which refers to any covert plan involving two or more people. In contrast, the term "conspiracy theory" refers to hypothesized conspiracies that have specific characteristics. For example, conspiracist beliefs invariably oppose the mainstream consensus among those people who are qualified to evaluate their accuracy, such as scientists or historians . Conspiracy theorists see themselves as having privileged access to socially persecuted knowledge or
2574-469: Is to challenge any action or statement from authorities, using even the most tenuous justifications. Responses are then assessed using a double standard, where failing to provide an immediate response to the satisfaction of the conspiracy theorist will be claimed to prove a conspiracy. Any minor errors in the response are heavily emphasized, while deficiencies in the arguments of other proponents are generally excused. In science, conspiracists may suggest that
2652-573: The Cold War , the United States tried to covertly change other nations' governments 66 times, succeeding in 26 cases. A " conspiracy theory " is a belief that a conspiracy has actually been decisive in producing a political event of which the theorists strongly disapprove. Conspiracy theories tend to be internally consistent and correlate with each other; they are generally designed to resist falsification either by evidence against them or
2730-517: The Rothschild family , which may have led to effects on discussions about China's currency policy . Conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in mass media , contributing to conspiracism emerging as a cultural phenomenon in the United States of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. The general predisposition to believe conspiracy theories cuts across partisan and ideological lines. Conspiratorial thinking
2808-553: The Soviet Union , and Turkey . AIDS denialism by the government of South Africa , motivated by conspiracy theories, caused an estimated 330,000 deaths from AIDS. QAnon and denialism about the 2020 United States presidential election results led to the January 6 United States Capitol attack , and belief in conspiracy theories about genetically modified foods led the government of Zambia to reject food aid during
2886-569: The Teach the Controversy campaign to promote intelligent design , which often claims that there is a conspiracy of scientists suppressing their views. If they successfully find a platform to present their views in a debate format, they focus on using rhetorical ad hominems and attacking perceived flaws in the mainstream account, while avoiding any discussion of the shortcomings in their own position. The typical approach of conspiracy theories
2964-689: The University of Tübingen . Butter wrote in 2020 that the CIA document Concerning Criticism of the Warren Report , which proponents of the theory use as evidence of CIA motive and intention, does not contain the phrase "conspiracy theory" in the singular, and only uses the term "conspiracy theories" once, in the sentence: "Conspiracy theories have frequently thrown suspicion on our organisation [ sic ], for example, by falsely alleging that Lee Harvey Oswald worked for us." A conspiracy theory
3042-514: The Web in the form of blogs and YouTube videos, as well as on social media . Whether the Web has increased the prevalence of conspiracy theories or not is an open research question. The presence and representation of conspiracy theories in search engine results has been monitored and studied, showing significant variation across different topics, and a general absence of reputable, high-quality links in
3120-411: The antisemitic conspiracy theories found among political extremists on both the far right and far left . More generally, belief in conspiracy theories is associated with holding extreme and uncompromising viewpoints, and may help people in maintaining those viewpoints. While conspiracy theories are not always present in extremist groups, and do not always lead to violence when they are, they can make
3198-745: The economy . Conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in mass media , the Internet , and social media , emerging as a cultural phenomenon of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. They are widespread around the world and are often commonly believed, some even held by the majority of the population. Interventions to reduce the occurrence of conspiracy beliefs include maintaining an open society , encouraging people to use analytical thinking , and reducing feelings of uncertainty, anxiety, or powerlessness. The Oxford English Dictionary defines conspiracy theory as "the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as
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3276-441: The 1943 Philadelphia Experiment . Both Peter Moon and Preston Nichols have encouraged speculation about the contents; for example, they wrote, "Whether you read this as science fiction or non-fiction you are in for an amazing story" in their first chapter, describing much of the content as "soft facts" in a Guide For Readers and publishing a newsletter with updates to the story. The work has been characterized as fiction, because
3354-673: The American CIA and the British MI6 necessarily make plans in secret to spy on suspected enemies of their respective countries and the general populace of its home countries, but this kind of activity is generally not considered to be a conspiracy so long as their goal is to fulfill their official functions, and not something like improperly enriching themselves. Similarly, the coaches of competing sports teams routinely meet behind closed doors to plan game strategies and specific plays designed to defeat their opponents, but this activity
3432-667: The American author Charles Astor Bristed , in a letter to the editor published in The New York Times on January 11, 1863. He used it to refer to claims that British aristocrats were intentionally weakening the United States during the American Civil War in order to advance their financial interests. England has had quite enough to do in Europe and Asia, without going out of her way to meddle with America. It
3510-772: The Bulgarian Experiment. Stories about the Montauk Project have circulated since the early 1980s. According to UFO researcher Jacques Vallée , the Montauk Experiment stories seem to have originated with the highly questionable account of Preston Nichols and Al Bielek, who both claimed to have recovered repressed memories of their own involvement. Preston Nichols also claims that he was periodically abducted to continue his participation against his will. Nichols, born May 24, 1946, on Long Island, New York , claims to have degrees in parapsychology , psychology , and electrical engineering , and he has written
3588-467: The English Press and public, which is most readily accounted for on the conspiracy theory . The term is also used as a way to discredit dissenting analyses. Robert Blaskiewicz comments that examples of the term were used as early as the nineteenth century and states that its usage has always been derogatory. According to a study by Andrew McKenzie-McHarg, in contrast, in the nineteenth century
3666-482: The Western world, with conspirators often alleged to enact their plans via sorcery or witchcraft; one common belief identifies modern technology as itself being a form of sorcery, created with the goal of harming or controlling the people. In China , one widely published conspiracy theory claims that a number of events including the rise of Hitler , the 1997 Asian financial crisis , and climate change were planned by
3744-414: The conspiracy and an absence of evidence for it are re-interpreted as evidence of its truth, whereby the conspiracy becomes a matter of faith rather than something that can be proved or disproved. The epistemic strategy of conspiracy theories has been called "cascade logic": each time new evidence becomes available, a conspiracy theory is able to dismiss it by claiming that even more people must be part of
3822-521: The conspiracy theory is false, attempting to discredit the source, explaining how the logic is invalid or misleading, and providing links to fact-checking websites. It can also be effective to use these strategies in advance, informing people that they could encounter misleading information in the future, and why the information should be rejected (also called inoculation or prebunking). While it has been suggested that discussing conspiracy theories can raise their profile and make them seem more legitimate to
3900-562: The conspiracy theory. 3) Approaches demonstrate empathy, and are based on building understanding together, which is supported by modeling open-mindedness in order to encourage the conspiracy theorists to do likewise. 4) The conspiracy theories are not attacked with ridicule or aggressive deconstruction, and interactions are not treated like an argument to be won; this approach can work with the general public, but among conspiracy theorists it may simply be rejected. Interventions that reduce feelings of uncertainty, anxiety, or powerlessness result in
3978-458: The conspiracy theory; instead, they may just use it in an attempt to gain public approval. Conspiratorial claims can act as a successful rhetorical strategy to convince a portion of the public via appeal to emotion . Conspiracy theories typically justify themselves by focusing on gaps or ambiguities in knowledge, and then arguing that the true explanation for this must be a conspiracy . In contrast, any evidence that directly supports their claims
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#17327913109434056-510: The conspirators as being Evil Incarnate: of having caused all the ills from which we suffer, committing abominable acts of unthinkable cruelty on a routine basis, and striving ultimately to subvert or destroy everything we hold dear. A conspiracy theory may take any matter as its subject, but certain subjects attract greater interest than others. Favored subjects include famous deaths and assassinations, morally dubious government activities, suppressed technologies, and " false flag " terrorism. Among
4134-402: The cover-up. Any information that contradicts the conspiracy theory is suggested to be disinformation by the alleged conspiracy. Similarly, the continued lack of evidence directly supporting conspiracist claims is portrayed as confirming the existence of a conspiracy of silence; the fact that other people have not found or exposed any conspiracy is taken as evidence that those people are part of
4212-448: The effects of workplace rumors, which share some characteristics with conspiracy theories and result in both decreased productivity and increased stress. Subsequent effects on managers include reduced profits, reduced trust from employees, and damage to the company's image. Conspiracy theories can divert attention from important social, political, and scientific issues. In addition, they have been used to discredit scientific evidence to
4290-492: The entire account was fabricated by Preston Nichols, and to some extent, Stewart Swerdlow, who has consistently been shown to contradict his own backstory, and it does appear as if Swerdlow just wanted to become famous in the New Age Community, and establish a reputation for himself. In 2015, Montauk Chronicles , a film adaptation of the conspiracy featuring Preston Nichols, Alfred Bielek, and Stewart Swerdlow,
4368-710: The general public or in a legal context. Conspiratorial strategies also share characteristics with those used by lawyers who are attempting to discredit expert testimony, such as claiming that the experts have ulterior motives in testifying, or attempting to find someone who will provide statements to imply that expert opinion is more divided than it actually is. It is possible that conspiracy theories may also produce some compensatory benefits to society in certain situations. For example, they may help people identify governmental deceptions, particularly in repressive societies, and encourage government transparency . However, real conspiracies are normally revealed by people working within
4446-709: The government of Zambia to reject food aid during a famine , at a time when 3 million people in the country were suffering from hunger . Conspiracy theories are a significant obstacle to improvements in public health . People who believe in health-related conspiracy theories are less likely to follow medical advice , and more likely to use alternative medicine instead. Conspiratorial anti-vaccination beliefs, such as conspiracy theories about pharmaceutical companies , can result in reduced vaccination rates and have been linked to outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases . Health-related conspiracy theories often inspire resistance to water fluoridation , and contributed to
4524-506: The group more extreme, provide an enemy to direct hatred towards, and isolate members from the rest of society. Conspiracy theories are most likely to inspire violence when they call for urgent action, appeal to prejudices, or demonize and scapegoat enemies. Conspiracy theorizing in the workplace can also have economic consequences. For example, it leads to lower job satisfaction and lower commitment, resulting in workers being more likely to leave their jobs. Comparisons have also been made with
4602-480: The impact of the Lancet MMR autism fraud . Conspiracy theories are a fundamental component of a wide range of radicalized and extremist groups, where they may play an important role in reinforcing the ideology and psychology of their members as well as further radicalizing their beliefs. These conspiracy theories often share common themes, even among groups that would otherwise be fundamentally opposed, such as
4680-489: The information available to the rest of society, believing in conspiracy theories may appear to be justified. In these cases, the solution would be to break the group's informational isolation. Public exposure to conspiracy theories can be reduced by interventions that reduce their ability to spread, such as by encouraging people to reflect before sharing a news story. Researchers Carlos Diaz Ruiz and Tomas Nilsson have proposed technical and rhetorical interventions to counter
4758-402: The likelihood of perceiving conspiracies in social situations." Historically, conspiracy theories have been closely linked to prejudice , propaganda , witch hunts , wars , and genocides . They are often strongly believed by the perpetrators of terrorist attacks , and were used as justification by Timothy McVeigh and Anders Breivik , as well as by governments such as Nazi Germany ,
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#17327913109434836-475: The longest-standing and most widely recognized conspiracy theories are notions concerning the assassination of John F. Kennedy , the 1969 Apollo Moon landings , and the 9/11 terrorist attacks , as well as numerous theories pertaining to alleged plots for world domination by various groups, both real and imaginary. Conspiracy beliefs are widespread around the world. In rural Africa, common targets of conspiracy theorizing include societal elites, enemy tribes, and
4914-418: The other hand, if the intent of carrying out a conspiracy exists, then there is a conspiracy even if the details are never agreed to aloud by the participants. CIA covert operations , for instance, are by their very nature hard to prove definitively, but research into the agency's work, as well as revelations by former CIA employees, has suggested several cases where the agency tried to influence events. During
4992-419: The perpetrators of terrorist attacks, and were used as justification by Timothy McVeigh , Anders Breivik and Brenton Tarrant , as well as by governments such as Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union . AIDS denialism by the government of South Africa , motivated by conspiracy theories, caused an estimated 330,000 deaths from AIDS, while belief in conspiracy theories about genetically modified foods led
5070-512: The plot, rather than considering that it may be because no conspiracy exists. This strategy lets conspiracy theories insulate themselves from neutral analyses of the evidence, and makes them resistant to questioning or correction, which is called "epistemic self-insulation". Conspiracy theorists often take advantage of false balance in the media. They may claim to be presenting a legitimate alternative viewpoint that deserves equal time to argue its case; for example, this strategy has been used by
5148-532: The public, the discussion can put people on guard instead as long as it is sufficiently persuasive. Other approaches to reduce the appeal of conspiracy theories in general among the public may be based in the emotional and social nature of conspiratorial beliefs. For example, interventions that promote analytical thinking in the general public are likely to be effective. Another approach is to intervene in ways that decrease negative emotions , and specifically to improve feelings of personal hope and empowerment. It
5226-726: The results. One conspiracy theory that propagated through former US President Barack Obama's time in office claimed that he was born in Kenya, instead of Hawaii where he was actually born . Former governor of Arkansas and political opponent of Obama Mike Huckabee made headlines in 2011 when he, among other members of Republican leadership, continued to question Obama's citizenship status. A conspiracy theory can be local or international, focused on single events or covering multiple incidents and entire countries, regions and periods of history. According to Russell Muirhead and Nancy Rosenblum , historically, traditional conspiracism has entailed
5304-571: The role of chance and unintended consequences. Nearly all observations are explained as having been deliberately planned by the alleged conspirators. In conspiracy theories, the conspirators are usually claimed to be acting with extreme malice. As described by Robert Brotherton: The malevolent intent assumed by most conspiracy theories goes far beyond everyday plots borne out of self-interest, corruption, cruelty, and criminality. The postulated conspirators are not merely people with selfish agendas or differing values. Rather, conspiracy theories postulate
5382-437: The spread of conspiracy theories on social media. Conspiracy A conspiracy , also known as a plot , ploy , or scheme , is a secret plan or agreement between people (called conspirers or conspirators ) for an unlawful or harmful purpose, such as murder , treason , or corruption , especially with a political motivation, while keeping their agreement secret from the public or from other people affected by it. In
5460-436: The standard reference." By contrast, the term "Watergate conspiracy theory" is used to refer to a variety of hypotheses in which those convicted in the conspiracy were in fact the victims of a deeper conspiracy. There are also attempts to analyze the theory of conspiracy theories (conspiracy theory theory) to ensure that the term "conspiracy theory" is used to refer to narratives that have been debunked by experts, rather than as
5538-412: The system, such as whistleblowers and journalists , and most of the effort spent by conspiracy theorists is inherently misdirected. The most dangerous conspiracy theories are likely to be those that incite violence, scapegoat disadvantaged groups, or spread misinformation about important societal issues. Strategies to address conspiracy theories have been divided into two categories based on whether
5616-856: The target audience is the conspiracy theorists or the general public. These strategies have been described as reducing either the supply or the demand for conspiracy theories. Both approaches can be used at the same time, although there may be issues of limited resources, or if arguments are used which may appeal to one audience at the expense of the other. People who feel empowered are more resistant to conspiracy theories. Methods to promote empowerment include encouraging people to use analytical thinking , priming people to think of situations where they are in control, and ensuring that decisions by society and government are seen to follow procedural fairness (the use of fair decision-making procedures). Methods of refutation which have shown effectiveness in various circumstances include: providing facts that demonstrate
5694-462: The term conspiracy theory simply "suggests a plausible postulate of a conspiracy" and "did not, at this stage, carry any connotations, either negative or positive", though sometimes a postulate so-labeled was criticized. The author and activist George Monbiot argued that the terms "conspiracy theory" and "conspiracy theorist" are misleading, as conspiracies truly exist and theories are "rational explanations subject to disproof". Instead, he proposed
5772-484: The term entered everyday language in the United States after 1964, the year in which the Warren Commission published its findings on the assassination of John F. Kennedy , with The New York Times running five stories that year using the term. Whether the CIA was responsible for popularising the term "conspiracy theory" was analyzed by Michael Butter, a Professor of American Literary and Cultural History at
5850-601: The terms "conspiracy fiction" and "conspiracy fantasist". The term "conspiracy theory" is itself the subject of a conspiracy theory, which posits that the term was popularized by the CIA in order to discredit conspiratorial believers, particularly critics of the Warren Commission , by making them a target of ridicule. In his 2013 book Conspiracy Theory in America , the political scientist Lance deHaven-Smith wrote that
5928-403: Was a physical and moral impossibility that she could be carrying on a gigantic conspiracy against us. But our masses, having only a rough general knowledge of foreign affairs, and not unnaturally somewhat exaggerating the space which we occupy in the world's eye, do not appreciate the complications which rendered such a conspiracy impossible. They only look at the sudden right-about-face movement of
6006-526: Was featured on a season 8 episode of Discovery Channel 's Mysteries of the Abandoned on October 23, 2003. The episode, titled, "The Montauk Conspiracy" documented the conspiracies that "swirled around an abandoned military base" ( Camp Hero ) in Long Island. Experts discussed the critical role that the base played in defending America's coastline. Conspiracy theory A conspiracy theory
6084-520: Was released online and on DVD and Blu-ray. The film won the best documentary award at the Philip K. Dick Film Festival in New York City and has been featured on Coast to Coast AM and The Huffington Post . The Netflix TV series Stranger Things (2016) was inspired by the somewhat dubious Montauk Project, and at one time Montauk was used as its working title . The Montauk Experiment
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