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60-536: The Major Occultation began in 329 AH (941 CE) with the death of the fourth successive agent of the Hidden Imam, Abu al-Hasan al-Samarri , marking the end of the Minor Occultation (260-329 AH, 874-941 CE). According to Twelver sources, shortly before his death, al-Samarri received a letter from the Hidden Imam , which predicted his imminent death, ordered him not to designate a successor, and announced

120-481: A letter from al-Mahdi shortly before his death in 329 (941). The letter predicted the death of the fourth agent in six days and announced the beginning of the complete ( tamma ) occultation, later called the Major Occultation ( al-ghaybat al-kubra ). The letter, ascribed to al-Mahdi, added that the complete occultation would continue until God granted him permission to manifest himself again in

180-451: A considerable number of the muhaddithun thought that Ja'far al-Sadiq had indicated his son Musa and hence stopped at him, contending that he was the Mahdi and was in a state of occultation. The Waqifites continued in their beliefs for a long time, but decreased in number with the passage of time, until the death of the theory and the extinction of those who believed in it. The extinction of

240-476: A constitution. This evolution culminated with the concept of wilayat al-faqih ( lit.   ' guardianship of the jurist ' ) by Khomeini , the religious leader of the Iranian revolution in 1979, who called upon religious scholars to assume an active role after the toppling of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , the last monarch of Iran. While some traditions, dating back to before 260 (874), might have predicted

300-544: A key role in inspiring the 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran led by Khomeini, who succeeded in using the potent concepts of Shia eschatology and theodicy—such as the Shia notions of struggle against injustice and worldly oppression—to mobilize the masses towards revolutionary goals. The former Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad often merged messianic rhetoric with populist nationalism at home, according to Kaussler, who deems that

360-424: A legitimate Islamic rule at any time, God would end the occultation of the Hidden Imam. On the other hand, as part of his theory of velayat-e faqih ( lit.   ' guardianship of a jurist ' ), Khomeini argued that the highest and most learned jurist could legitimately form a government with a divine mandate to prepare the world for the return of the Hidden Imam. The doctrine of occultation thus played

420-477: A long time and after the hearts become hard and the earth is filled with wickedness. In the near future there will be those among my followers who will claim to have seen me. Beware, those who claim this before the rise of al-Sufyani and the [hearing of the] voice from the sky are liars. Waqifite Shia The Waqifite Shia were a Shia sect who accepted the Imamate of Musa al-Kadhim , but refused to accept

480-523: A period of about seventy years, later termed the Minor Occultation ( al-ghaybat al-sughra , 260-329 AH, 874–940 CE), during which it is believed that four successive agents acted as intermediaries between the Hidden Imam and his followers. These four agents are collectively known as the Four Deputies ( al-nuwwab al-arba' ). An agent ( wakil ) was also variously called deputy ( na'ib ), emissary ( safir ), and gate ( bab ). Uthman

540-548: A rationalist approach in order to vindicate the occultation of the Hidden Imam. Abu Sahl al-Nawbakhti ( d.  923 ), for instance, argued that the absence of an Imam does not invalidate his religion or law, as with the absence of a prophet. Concerns about inauthentic hadiths, voiced by Tusi ( d.  995 ) and others, might have given another impetus to this transition. Starting with Ibn Babawayh ( d.  991 ) and his student al-Mufid ( d.  1022 ), Shia scholars began to employ theological arguments modeled on

600-459: A savior. Uthman also claimed that he had been appointed to represent Muhammad, who is more commonly known as Muhammad al-Mahdi ( lit.   ' the rightly guided ' ). Being the closest associate of al-Askari, Uthman's assertions were largely accepted by other representatives of al-Askari. Those who accepted the imamate of this Muhammad later formed the Twelvers. The other sects created over

660-503: A second occultation, the sources from the beginning of Major Occultation indicate that the prolonged absence of the Hidden Imam may have led many of the Twelvers to abandon their belief in him. His absence also provided a basis for renewed criticisms at the time, voiced by the Mu'tazilites and Ash'arites . These pressures likely expedited a transition in Twelver arguments from a traditionist to

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720-494: A time when the earth would be filled with tyranny. The letter also emphasized that anyone claiming to be the deputy of the Imam henceforth had to be considered an imposter. Sachedina is of the view that the Shia community lacked a notable figure to replace the fourth agent after his death. This and similar letters to the four agents and other Shia figures are said to have had the same handwriting, suggesting that they were written by

780-545: Is ready to receive his guidance. During the Minor Occultation, which began in 260 (874) with the death of his father and predecessor, the Hidden Imam remained in contact with his followers through the four Babs (gates). During the Major Occultation, which began in 329 (941) and continues to this day, there is no direct communication, though the Hidden Imam still remains responsible in Twelver belief for

840-487: Is said to have disguised himself as a seller of cooking fat to avoid the Abbasid agents, hence his nickname al-Samman. Tabatabai suggests that these restrictions were placed on al-Askari because the caliphate had come to know about traditions among the Shia elite, predicting that the eleventh Imam would father the eschatological Mahdi . Immediately after the death of al-Askari in 260 (874), Uthman ibn Sa'id claimed that

900-581: The Exalted has revealed on Muhammad. If Allah exalted were to extend the lifespan of anyone due to the need of the creation to him, He would have extended the lifespan of the Messenger of Allah.” Some of the eminent figures and leaders of the Waqifites included: Muhammad ibn al-Hasan ibn Shammun, Ali Ibn Abu Hamza, al-Husayn ibn Mahran, and Ibn Abu Sa‘ïd. Another eminent person attributed to the Waqifites

960-555: The Hidden Imam and his personal interventions in the lives of his followers. In recent years, according to Cook , growing anticipation for the imminent return of the Hidden Imam among the wider public has led to spread of widely-available literature about predictions and prophecies concerning his return and his just rule. For example, books about the Hidden Imam are now abundant in Lebanon , containing not only classical prophesies but also interpretations of contemporary events in relation to

1020-469: The Hidden Imam has helped the Shia tolerate unbearable persecutions under different Sunni dynasties. This belief has also often inspired social movements against political oppression. A sense of responsibility for paving the way for the reappearance of al-Mahdi, Sachedina writes, has compelled the Shia to constantly re-evaluate and improve their social circumstances. Throughout history, a vast and deeply personal Shia literature has emerged about encounters with

1080-474: The Hidden Imam left a significant gap. This leadership vacuum was eventually filled by Twelver jurists ( fuqaha ), who remain the sole leaders of the Twelver community during the Major Occultation. Often cited to support this transition is a letter received by Ishaq ibn Ya'qub in response to his religious inquiries of the second agent, Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Uthman ( d.  916-17 ). The letter, said to have been written by al-Mahdi, stipulated that As for

1140-425: The Hidden Imam, such as Ali ibn Muhammad ibn Ziyad, who was earlier a representative of the tenth and eleventh Imams. Al-Sammari was also a brother-in-law of the Abbasid vizier Ja'far ibn Muhammad. According to Hussain, all these suggest that al-Samarri must have faced little resistance from the Shia community later when he succeeded Ibn Ruh as the fourth agent of the Hidden Imam. Al-Samarri succeeded Ibn Ruh as

1200-468: The Hidden Imam. Ibn Babawayh and Tusi ( d.  1067 ) both quote this final letter, parts of which are presented below: O' Ali b. Muhammad al-Samarri, may God reward your brethren in your death, which is going to take place in six days' time. So take care of your affairs and do not appoint anyone in your place, since the complete occultation has taken place. I will not appear until God permits me to do so (may His name be exalted) and that will be after

1260-468: The Imam's share of Khums (a type of Islamic alms) on activities that furthered the cause of Shia, as opposed to his predecessors, such as al-Mufid ( d.  1022 ), who often asked the faithful to save these donations for the rise of al-Mahdi. Considering that jurists were not directly appointed by the Hidden Imam, it was debated whether their authority should extend to functions with political implications, such as declaring holy war ( jihad ). It

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1320-660: The Imamate of his successor Ali ar-Ridha . The Waqifites believed in the Mahdi and the Occultation of Imam Musa al-Kazim . They believed Musa was alive, did not die, and would never die, that he was raised to heaven just as Jesus was raised, and that he was the awaited one who would fill the world with justice and fairness as it was filled with oppression and tyranny. However, they later differed amongst themselves concerning Musa’s death and split into four sub-groups. Three of

1380-759: The Iranian-backed Lebanese militant organization Hezbollah , accused bin Salman of turning a political struggle into a religious one. He added that the belief in al-Mahdi was not specific to the Shia and that there is a consensus among Muslims about Mahdi from the progeny of the Islamic prophet Muhammad who will fill the earth with justice in the end of time. Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Muhammad al-Samarri Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Muhammad al-Samarri ( Arabic : أَبُو ٱلْحَسَن عَلِيّ ٱبْن مُحَمَّد ٱلسَّمَّرِيّ , ʾAbū al-Ḥasan ʿAlīy ibn Muḥammad as-Sammarīy )

1440-549: The Iraq was aimed at finding and killing al-Mahdi as part of an apocalyptic war against the Shia. During the Iranian Constitutional Revolution , the top Shia jurist Akhund Khurasani and his colleagues theorized a model of religious secularity in the absence of the Hidden Imam that still prevails in Shia seminaries today. He believed that an Islamic system of governance cannot be established without

1500-463: The Mu'tazilite kalam . Of these, the principle of al-lutf ( lit.   ' kindness ' ) is an example. At a high level, this principle necessitates that a prophet or an Imam should exist at any time to guide towards God, as the manifestation of His utmost kindness towards His subjects. Other Twelver arguments aim to establish that the Hidden Imam benefits humankind even in occultation, "just as

1560-468: The Shia that had already predicted the two periods of occultation. These hadiths were previously cited, for instance, by the Waqifites in reference to the two arrests of Musa al-Kazim , the seventh Imam. Nevertheless, the prolonged absence of the Hidden Imam seems to have created widespread doubts among his followers. As both the spiritual and political head of the Twelver community, the occultation of

1620-435: The Shia, partly due to a renewed Zaydi opposition. The restrictive policies of al-Mutawakkil towards the tenth Imam were later adopted by his son, al-Mu'tamid , who is reported to have kept the eleventh Imam under house arrest without any visitors. Instead, al-Askari is known to have primarily communicated with his followers through a network of representatives. Among them was Uthman ibn Sa'id ( d.  880 ), who

1680-432: The Twelver community. Among these accounts are also the encounters of the prominent religious scholars ( ulama ) with the Hidden Imam. The descriptions of these Twelver contacts often show the concern of the Hidden Imam for the well-being of his followers and how such encounters may prompt the believer's "spiritual resurrection," an interpretation put forward by late mystic sources. As the Hidden Imam can only be seen in

1740-517: The Twelvers. Until their deaths, the tenth and eleventh Shia Imams ( Ali al-Hadi and Hasan al-Askari , respectively) were held under close surveillance in the garrison town of Samarra by the Abbasids, who are often responsible in Shia sources for poisoning the two Imams. Contemporary to the tenth Imam, the Abbasid al-Mutawakkil heavily persecuted the Shia, partly due to a renewed Zaydi opposition. The restrictive policies of al-Mutawakkil towards

1800-472: The Waqifites’ beliefs by lavishly spending money in order to buy the minds of the people and to misguide them. The other (less probable) reason for the creation of the Waqifites’ beliefs is that Musa’s father, Ja'far al-Sadiq (the 6th Imam), reported many traditions concerning the occultation and the rise of al-Qa'im , but did not indicate explicitly which of his descendants would be al-Qa'im. Therefore,

1860-429: The absence of the Hidden Imam continued, however, the Twelver jurists evolved from mere transmitters ( ruwat ) of hadith to mujtahidun in order to resolve new religious questions that arose over time. Their authority also increased with time to address the need to explicate religious teachings for the community. For instance, as early as the seventh (thirteenth) century, Muhaqqiq al-Hilli ( d.  1277 ) spent

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1920-421: The beginning of the "complete occultation," in which there would be no agent of the Hidden Imam, though he is believed by the Twelvers to remain responsible for the affairs of men and their inward spiritual guidance during the occultation. The Twelver theory of occultation crystallized in the first half of the fourth (tenth) century based on rational and textual arguments. This theory, for instance, sets forth that

1980-523: The caliphate had come to know about traditions among the Shia elite, predicting that the eleventh Imam would father the eschatological Mahdi . Al-Askari died in 260 (873–874) without an obvious heir. Immediately after the death of the eleventh Imam, his main representative, Uthman ibn Sa'id , claimed that the Imam had an infant son, named Muhammad, who was kept hidden from the public out of fear of Abbasid persecution, as they sought to eliminate an expected child of al-Askari, whom persistent rumors described as

2040-432: The death of al-Samarri in six days and announced the beginning of the "complete occultation," later called the Major Occultation, which continues to this day. The letter, ascribed to Muhammad al-Mahdi, added that the complete occultation would continue until God permitted him to manifest himself again in a time when the earth would be filled with tyranny. The Major Occultation, a term coined later, began in 329 (940–941) with

2100-495: The death of al-Samarri in six days and announced the beginning of the complete occultation, later called the Major Occultation , which continues to this day. The letter, ascribed to Muhammad al-Mahdi, added that the complete occultation would continue until God granted him permission to manifest himself again in a time when the earth would be filled with tyranny.   Until their deaths, the tenth and eleventh Shia Imams ( Ali al-Hadi and Hasan al-Askari , respectively) were held in

2160-474: The death of the fourth agent, al-Samarri, who did not designate a successor. In this period, which continues today, there is no agent of the Hidden Imam. There is some evidence that the death of the fourth agent also dissolved the underground network of representatives responsible primarily for the collection and distribution of the religious donations. The office of deputyship was thus formally closed. Despite some uncertainty, there were likely early traditions among

2220-439: The eleventh Imam had a young son, named Muhammad, who had entered a state of occultation ( ghayba ) due to the Abbasid threat to his life. As the special agent of al-Askari, Uthman also claimed that he had been appointed to represent the son of the eleventh Imam. Twelver sources detail that Muhammad al-Mahdi made his only public appearance to lead the funeral prayer for his father instead of his uncle, Ja'far . Thus began

2280-591: The eminent clerics of Najaf and Isfahan issued a declaration of jihad against the Russians to support the Qajarite Abbas Mirza , who was conducting the campaign. Later on, however, jurists often had to compete with the Shia monarchs for religious authority. In sum, the politically quiescent approach of the Twelver jurists over time gave way to eventually questioning the legitimacy of Shia monarchs and even attempts to restrict their power through

2340-483: The end of time, those who see him, it is argued, have attained their individual end of time. For instance, publishers close to the Lebanese Shia militant organization Hezbollah have published the accounts of some Hezbollah fighters who believed they were directly assisted by al-Mahdi in critical moments on the battlefields of the 2006 Israel-Hezbollah conflict . Sachedina suggests that the messianic belief in

2400-456: The events which may occur [in future when you may need guidance in religious matters] refer to the transmitters ( ruwat ) of our sayings (hadith) who are my hujja ( lit.   ' proof ' ) to you and I am the hujja of God to you all [or "to them" in another version]. A few similar hadiths are attributed to the tenth and eleventh Imams. The traditions also specify that these jurists must be just and knowledgeable in Islamic law. As

2460-420: The first half of the fourth (tenth) century. In its simplest form, this doctrine states that Muhammad al-Mahdi, the twelfth Imam, did not die but has been concealed by God from the humanity. His life has been miraculously prolonged until the day he manifests himself again by God's permission to fill the earth with justice. This occultation continues until the safety of the Imam can be guaranteed, and until humankind

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2520-483: The former president believed in the imminent return of the Hidden Imam. In his U.N. speeches, Ahmadinejad combined references to al-Mahdi with a blistering Third-Worldist ideological attack on Western imperialism and Zionism intended to appeal to his audience in Middle East . Kaussler continues that Ahmadinejad and his supporters also sought to depict Iran as a chosen nation and a superpower uniquely blessed by

2580-410: The fourth agent in 326 (937) and held the office for about three years. In contrast to the third agent, less is known about the other three agents, including al-Samarri. While the details of his activities are unknown, a report cited by Ibn Babawayh ( d.  991 ) cites a report to the effect that the (local) agents recognized and cooperated with al-Samarri. Al-Samarri is said to have received

2640-484: The garrison town of Samarra under close surveillance (or house arrest ) by the Abbasids, who are often responsible in Shia sources for poisoning the two Imams. The two Imams witnessed the deterioration of the Abbasid caliphate, as the imperial authority rapidly transitioned into the hands of the Turks, particularly after al-Mutawakkil . Contemporary to the tenth Imam, the Abbasid al-Mutawakkil violently prosecuted

2700-427: The infallible Imam leading it. At the same time, he argued that a rightful religion must restrain the state to prevent despotism. He thus concluded that, in absence of the Hidden Imam, democracy was the best available form of governance, as proper legislation can prevent state tyranny and maintain peace and security. A similar view was held by Aqa Buzurg Tehrani , who argued that if there was a possibility of establishing

2760-565: The inward spiritual guidance of humankind (whereas his outward role begins with his reappearance). The Twelvers believe that the primordial light of the prophethood has continued to shine through the ages in the character of the Imams. Thus the Hidden Imam is not viewed as inaccessible in the state of occultation. Indeed, it is popularly held that al-Mahdi occasionally appears to the pious in person or, more commonly, in dreams and visions. The accounts of these encounters are numerous and widespread in

2820-405: The life of Muhammad al-Mahdi has been miraculously prolonged, arguing that the earth cannot be void of the Imam as the highest proof of God. In the absence of the Hidden Imam, the leadership vacuum in the Twelver community was gradually filled by jurists. It is popularly held that the Hidden Imam occasionally appears to the pious, and the accounts of these encounters are numerous and widespread among

2880-403: The money they had collected on behalf of Musa. When Ali ar-Ridha demanded that they give the money to him (as the rightful successor of his father Musa), they refused to hand it over to him, since they denied that Musa ever died. Therefore, these agents denied Musa’s death and rejected Ali ar-Ridha’s Imamate in order that they would have an excuse for not returning the money. Such agents then spread

2940-483: The people benefit from the sun while it is covered by clouds." While the ordinary Twelvers were likely content with the traditions about occultation, the theologist approach to vindicating the Hidden Imam was mainly intended to address the criticisms of the non-Twelver theologians. The two approaches were blended together by Tusi in his substantial monograph Kitab al-Ghayba ( lit.   ' book of occultation ' ). The Twelver doctrine of occultation crystallized in

3000-464: The return of al-Mahdi. In particular, with the 2006 campaign against Israel, the Lebanese resistance group Hezbollah published the accounts of "miraculous occurrences" that took place during the war, featuring the perceived interventions of al-Mahdi to help Hezbollah fighters. In Iraq, where many hold deep suspicions of the U.S. , Cook writes that there are frequent claims that the U.S.-led invasion of

3060-784: The sect was especially hastened when Imam Ali ar-Ridha (who himself faced many difficulties in proving his own right to the Imamate, not only to his father's prominent followers, but also to his brother Ahmad) confirmed the death of his father and said to the Waqifites: “Allah’s evidence on His creation will be only through the Imam that is alive, and is well-known. Glory be to Allah. The Messenger of Allah died and Musa bin Ja’far did not die? Yes, by Allah he has died, and his wealth has been distributed and his slave girls have been married.” He suspected those who claimed that his father did not die, of lying and said: “They are disbelievers in what Allah

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3120-478: The special favors of the Hidden Imam to lead a global mission against injustice. In an interview in 2017, the then- Saudi deputy crown prince Mohammad bin Salman Al Saud rejected the possibility of dialogue with Iran, referring to its government as an entity with an "extremist ideology" that calls for preparations for the return of the Hidden Imam. In response, Hassan Nasrallah , the secretary-general of

3180-937: The sub-groups believed that Musa had died, while the other remaining subgroup persistently denied that Musa al-Kadhim had died. The most probable reason for the creation of the Waqifites’ beliefs is that when Musa al-Kadhim, was in the prison of the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid , he appointed some agents on his behalf in order to collect the legal monetary rights from his Shï‘ites. These agents included Ziyad ibn Marwan al-Qandi and ‘Ali ibn Abu Hamza (in Kufa ), who collected funds of 70,000 and 30,000 dinars respectively. Other such agents included `Uthman ibn `Isa al-Rawasi (in Egypt ), and Hayyan and al-Sarraj (in Kufa). When Musa died, these agents bought country estates and houses from

3240-440: The succession of al-Askari disappeared within a hundred years. Thus began a period of about seventy years, later termed the Minor Occultation ( al-ghaybat al-sughra ), during which it is believed that four successive agents represented Muhammad al-Mahdi, the Hidden Imam. The fourth agent, Abu al-Hasan al-Samarri , is said to have received a letter from Muhammad al-Mahdi shortly before his death in 941 CE. The letter predicted

3300-498: The tenth Imam were later adopted by his son, al-Mu'tamid , who is reported to have kept the eleventh Imam under house arrest without any visitors. Instead, al-Askari is known to have mainly communicated with his followers through a network of representatives. Among them was Uthman ibn Sa'id , who is said to have disguised himself as a seller of cooking fat to avoid the Abbasid agents, hence his nickname al-Samman. Tabatabai suggests that these restrictions were placed on al-Askari because

3360-484: Was Al-Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn Suma`a (d. 263 A.H. / 877 C.E.), the Waqifite student of al-Ta'i al-Tatari. The information in the book he composed was later used by Twelver Shia who lived during the period from 260–329 A.H. / 874-940-1 C.E., like al-Hasan al-Saffar (d. 292 A.H. / 904 C.E.) and Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni , to support their claim that the hidden Imam was not the 7th Imam (i.e. Musa al-Kadhim), but rather

3420-413: Was Yazid ibn Khalifa al-Harithi, who was regarded as one of the companions of Ja'far al-Sadiq (who reportedly praised him). 'Ali ibn al-Hasan al-Ta'i al-Tatari (a companion of Musa al-Kadhim) named Musa al-Kadhim as the hidden Imam. In defense of his view he wrote Kitab al-Ghayba, which became the framework for the works of later Waqifite authors on the issue of al-Ghayba (the occultation). One such author

3480-451: Was later succeeded by his son, Abu Ja'far Muhammad , who was followed in 917 CE by the third agent, Ibn Ruh al-Nawbakhti, who served until his death in 937 CE. Not much is known about the early life of al-Samarri. His surname is derived from al-Sammar or al-Saymar, located near Basra, where the relatives of al-Sammari used to live. His family was known for its service to the Shia community, and some of his relatives were (local) agents of

3540-549: Was likely Shahid al-Thani ( d.  1558 ) who first suggested that a (qualified) jurist was the general deputy ( na'ib al-amm ) of the Hidden Imam whose authority encompassed all prerogatives of the Imam. The transition of Twelver jurists into their new role was facilitated by the formation of Shia states, particularly the Safavid and Qajar dynasties in Iran. For instance, during the Russo-Iranian war of 1804–13,

3600-464: Was the last of the Four Deputies , who are believed by the Twelvers to have successively represented their Hidden Imam , Muhammad al-Mahdi , during his Minor Occultation (874–941 CE). Al-Samarri in this role succeeded Abu al-Qasim al-Husayn ibn Ruh al-Nawbakhti in 937. Al-Samarri is said to have received a letter from Muhammad al-Mahdi shortly before his death in 941 CE. The letter predicted

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