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86-449: There was great disappointment when the works reached the hill d'Ensérune. A few metres of digging in hard rock revealed a very brittle sandstone subject to slippage. Colbert , the prime minister, halted the works when he was made aware of the situation. The portal was blocked and the workings re-sited. Riquet's detractors took advantage of this situation to impede the project. Colbert announced that he would send royal commissioners to decide

172-442: A Jesuit college, working for a Parisian banker; as well as working for the father of Jean Chapelain . Before the age of 20, Colbert had a post in the war office, a position generally attributed to the marriage of an uncle to the sister of Secretary of War Michel Le Tellier . Colbert spent some time as an inspector of troops, eventually becoming the personal secretary of Le Tellier. In 1647, through unknown means, Colbert acquired

258-529: A cristallo -like glass in Potsdam . The Bohemian and Prussian -style glass was later modified by the addition of lime and chalk. This new glass is attributed to Bohemian glassmaker Michael Müller in 1683. It had a tendency to crizzle at first, but the problem had been solved by 1714. The Bohemian glass was not suitable to the Murano-style artwork on the glass. However, this harder glass was produced as

344-619: A Venetian lawyer who gave up his profession in 1859 in order to devote his time to glassmaking, also had an important role in the revival of glassmaking in Murano. From its beginning until the fall of the Venetian Republic, Murano glass was mostly a very high quality soda–lime glass (using today's terminology) that had extra attention focused on its appearance. Glass from that time typically contained 65 to 70 percent silica . A flux, usually soda (sodium oxide as 10 to 20 percent of

430-614: A fine powder. Two sources for sand were Crete and Sicily . Quartz pebbles were selected from the Ticino and Adige rivers in Northern Italy . Their source for soda was what they called allume catina —plant ash found in the eastern Mediterranean countries of the Middle East. Beginning in the 16th century, allume catina was also imported from Mediterranean coastal regions of Spain and France. The mixing and melting of

516-617: A glassmaker's daughter married a nobleman, there was no forfeiture of social class, so their children were nobles. The Venetian glassmakers of Murano are known for many innovations and refinements to glassmaking. Among them are Murano beads , cristallo , lattimo , chandeliers , and mirrors. Additional refinements or creations are goldstone , multicolored glass ( millefiori ), and imitation gemstones made of glass. In addition to guarding their secret processes and glass recipes, Venetian/Murano glassmakers strived for beauty with their glass. Aventurine glass , also known as goldstone glass,

602-431: A glassworker left the city without permission, he would be ordered to return. If he failed to return, his family would be imprisoned. If he still did not return, an assassin would be sent to kill him. Additional rules specified ingredients used for making glass and the type of wood used as fuel for the furnaces. A law dated November 8, 1291 confined most of Venice's glassmaking industry to the "island of Murano ". Murano

688-559: A group of companies and concerned individuals created a trademark in 1994 that certifies that the product was made on Murano. By 2012, about 50 companies were using the Artistic Glass Murano® trademark of origin. Glassmaking is a difficult and uncomfortable profession, as glassmakers must work with a product heated to extremely high temperatures. Unlike 500 years ago, children of glassmakers do not enjoy any special privileges, extra wealth, or marriage into nobility. Today, it

774-462: A member of the Académie française ; and proposed one very characteristic rule with the intention of expediting the great Dictionary , in which he had a great interest: no one could count as present at any meeting unless he arrived before the hour of commencement and remained till the hour for leaving. In 1673 Colbert presided over the first exhibition of the works of living painters; and he enriched

860-797: A mile from the Continental Divide in the Brooks Range , the area was on ancient trade routes from the Bering Sea to the Arctic Ocean. The researchers believed the likely route these artifacts traveled from their creation in Venice was across Europe, then Eurasia and finally over the Bering Strait , making this discovery "the first documented instance of the presence of indubitable European materials in prehistoric sites in

946-511: A patron, however highly ranked, but had to agree in this case for reasons of diplomacy between France and the Holy See . While in France, Bernini also sculpted a marble portrait bust of Louis XIV (Versailles palace). However the relations between the two strong-willed men, Colbert and Bernini, proved melodramatically stormy. Bernini's Louvre design was ultimately rejected. Colbert himself became

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1032-568: A policy focusing on the unification of French trade. His régime improved roads and canals. Pierre Paul Riquet (1604–1680) planned and constructed the Canal du Midi under Colbert's patronage. To encourage overseas trade with the Levant , Senegal , Guinea and other places, Colbert granted privileges to companies, but, like the noted French East India Company , all proved unsuccessful. Colbert took much interest in art and literature. He possessed

1118-657: A remarkably fine private library, which he delighted to fill with valuable manuscripts from every part of Europe and the Near East where France had placed a consul. He employed Pierre de Carcavi and Étienne Baluze as librarians. Colbert's grandson sold the manuscript collection in 1732 to the Bibliothèque Royale . Colbert founded a number of institutions: He reorganised the Academy of Painting and Sculpture which Mazarin had established. Wishing to increase

1204-476: A revival in the 1920s. Today, Murano and Venice are tourist attractions, and Murano is home to numerous glass factories and a few individual artists' studios. Its Museo del Vetro (Glass Museum) in the Palazzo Giustinian contains displays on the history of glassmaking as well as glass samples ranging from Egyptian times through the present day. The Venetian city state grew during the decline of

1290-595: A strong navy. Many European Crusaders passed through Venice on their way to and from the Holy Land . Treasures of many kinds were bought and sold in Venice: spices, precious metals, gemstones, ivory, silks—and glass. Successful trade bred a wealthy merchant class in addition to the nobles , and the wealthy became patrons of Venice's famous art and architecture. It is thought that glass production in Venice began as early as around 450, as glassmakers from Aquileia fled to

1376-545: A thicker glass suitable for glass engraving and grinding. The Bohemian and English glass eventually became more popular than cristallo made in Murano. By the 1700s, Murano glass was traded mostly with Italian states and the Turkish empire. Small quantities were traded with England, Flanders, the Netherlands and Spain. Napoleon conquered Venice during May 1797, and the Venetian Republic came to an end . The fall of

1462-430: A wide variety of fields. The authorities established new industries, protected inventors, invited in workmen from foreign countries, and prohibited French workmen from emigrating. To maintain the character of French goods in foreign markets as well as to afford a guarantee to the domestic consumer, Colbert had the quality and quantity of each article fixed by law, punishing breaches of the regulations by public exposure of

1548-405: Is Antica Vetreria Fratelli Toso, founded in 1854. Overall, the industry has been shrinking as demand has waned. Imitation works (recognizable by experts but not by the typical tourist) from Asia and Eastern Europe take an estimated 40 to 45 percent of the market for Murano glass, and public tastes have changed while the designs in Murano have largely stayed the same. To fight the imitation problem,

1634-529: Is actually a cluster of islands linked by short bridges, located less than 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) north of the Venetian mainland in the Venetian lagoon . The furnaces used to make molten glass were a fire hazard, especially in cities with wooden structures nearby. Moving the glassmaking industry to Murano removed the threat of a disastrous fire in Venice. The move also kept the technology of glassmaking, and

1720-465: Is difficult to recruit young glassmakers. Foreign imitations, and difficulty attracting young workers, caused the number of professional glassmakers in Murano to decrease from about 6,000 in 1990 to fewer than 1,000 by 2012. In February 2021, Venetian glass trade beads were announced to have been found at three prehistoric Eskimo sites in Alaska , including Punyik Point. Uninhabited today, and located

1806-704: Is said to have been Riquet's inspiration for the Malpas Tunnel. In the nineteenth century, a third tunnel was excavated, passing through the Hill d'Ensérune beneath the Malpas tunnel to house the Béziers to Narbonne railway line. 43°18′26″N 3°7′36″E  /  43.30722°N 3.12667°E  / 43.30722; 3.12667 Jean-Baptiste Colbert Jean-Baptiste Colbert ( French: [ʒɑ̃.ba.tist kɔl.bɛʁ] ; 29 August 1619 – 6 September 1683)

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1892-584: Is the workbench used by the glassmaker. "Good tools are nice, but good hands are better", is an old Murano saying that reinforces the idea that the glassmakers of Murano rely on their skills instead of any advantage caused by special tools. Some of Venice's historical glass factories in Murano remain well known brands today, including De Biasi, Gabbiani, Venini , Salviati , Barovier & Toso , Pauly , Berengo Studio , Seguso , Formia International, Simone Cenedese, Alessandro Mandruzzato, Vetreria Ducale, Estevan Rossetto 1950 and others. The oldest glass factory

1978-560: Is translucent brownish with metallic (copper) specks. It was developed by Venetian glassmakers in the early 15th century. It is first cited in historical documents in 1626. The name aventurine is used because it was discovered accidentally. Glass beads (a.k.a. Murano beads) were made by the Venetians beginning in the 1200s. The beads were used as rosary beads and jewelry. They were also popular in Africa. Christopher Columbus noted that

2064-404: Is typically elaborately decorated, with various "hot" glass-forming techniques, as well as gilding , enamel , or engraving . Production has been concentrated on the Venetian island of Murano since the 13th century. Today Murano is known for its art glass , but it has a long history of innovations in glassmaking in addition to its artistic fame—and was Europe's major center for luxury glass from

2150-647: The French East India Company had access to foreign markets, so that they could always obtain coffee , cotton , dyewoods , fur , pepper , and sugar . He acted to create a favorable balance of trade and increase colonial holdings . As there was slavery in the colonies, in 1682, Colbert commissioned the beginning of a project that would become the Code Noir in 1685, two years after his death. In addition, he founded France's merchant navy ( marine marchande ), becoming Secretary of State of

2236-607: The High Middle Ages to the Italian Renaissance . During the 15th century, Murano glassmakers created cristallo —which was almost transparent and considered the finest glass in the world. Murano glassmakers also developed a white-colored glass ( milk glass called lattimo ) that looked like porcelain . They later became Europe's finest makers of mirrors. During the Early Middle Ages, Venice

2322-564: The Louvre with hundreds of pictures and statues. He gave many pensions to men of letters, among whom we find Molière , Corneille , Racine , Boileau , P D Huet (1630–1721) and Antoine Varillas (1626–1696); and even foreigners, as Huygens , Carlo Roberto Dati the Dellacruscan . Evidence exists to show that by this munificence he hoped to draw out praises of his sovereign and himself; but this motive certainly does not account for all

2408-455: The corporation system, each industry remained in the hands of certain privileged bourgeois ; while the lower classes found opportunities of advancement closed. He did, however, wisely consult the interests of internal commerce. Unable to abolish the duties on the passage of goods from province to province , he did what he could to induce the provinces to equalize them. Currency exchange rates still remained between these provinces despite

2494-479: The economy back from the brink of bankruptcy . Nevertheless, despite his best efforts, France grew increasingly impoverished because of the King's excessive spending on wars. Having introduced a measure of order and economy into the workings of the government, Colbert called for the enrichment of the country by means of commerce. Through Colbert's dirigiste policies, France fostered manufacturing enterprises in

2580-604: The guilds . The Académie des sciences was founded in 1666 at his suggestion; he was a member of the Académie française from 1 March 1667 to his death, where he occupied the 24th seat, to which Jean de La Fontaine was later elected. His son Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Marquis de Seignelay (1651–1690), succeeded him as Navy Secretary. Colbert's father and grandfather were merchants in his birthplace of Reims , France . He claimed to have Scottish ancestry. A widespread (but unconfirmed) belief exists that he spent his early youth at

2666-481: The 1200s was a summer resort where the aristocrats of Venice built villas with orchards and gardens. It took about an hour to row a boat from Venice to Murano. Although the glassmakers could not leave the island, the nobles had no such constraints. Despite their travel restrictions, the glassmakers lived on a beautiful island, were under the direct rule of Venice's Council of Ten (the Venetian state-security committee), and had extra privileges. They did not work during

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2752-623: The 15th and 16th centuries. Venice's dominance in trade along the Mediterranean created a wealthy merchant class that was a strong connoisseur of the arts. This helped establish demand for art glass and more innovations. The spread of glassmaking talent in Europe eventually diminished the importance of Venice and its Murano glassmakers. The occupation and dissolution of the Venetian state by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1797 caused more hardship for Murano's glassmaking industry. Murano glassmaking began

2838-466: The 15th century, and Angelo Barovier is credited with its re-discovery and development. This glass is opaque white, and was meant to resemble enameled porcelain . It was often decorated with enamel showing sacred scenes or views of Venice. Millefiori glass is a variation of the murrine technique made from colored canes in clear glass, and is often arranged in flower-like patterns. The Italian word millefiori means thousand flowers. This technique

2924-464: The 1940s and 1950s for his innovations using the murrine technique. Sommerso ("submerged" in Italian), is a form of artistic Murano glass that has layers of different colors (typically two), which are formed by dipping colored glass into another molten glass and then blowing the combination into a desired shape. The outermost layer, or casing, is often clear. Sommerso was developed in Murano during

3010-613: The Navy in 1669. His effective market reforms included the foundation of the Manufacture royale de glaces de miroirs in 1665 to supplant the importation of Venetian glass , which was forbidden in 1672 as soon as the national glass manufacturing industry was on sound footing. Also encouraging the technical expertise of Flemish cloth manufacturing in France, he founded royal tapestry works at Gobelins and supported those at Beauvais . He issued more than 150 edicts to regulate

3096-440: The Navy ; he also gained appointments as minister of commerce , of the colonies , and of the palace . In short, Colbert acquired power in every department except that of war. A great financial and fiscal reform now claimed all his energies. Not only the nobility, but many others who had no legal claim to exemption, paid no taxes; the bulk of the burden fell on the rural poor. Supported by the young king Louis XIV , Colbert aimed

3182-529: The Roman Empire in the fifth century, as people fled the barbarian invasions to the safety of islands in the Venetian Lagoon . Small communities grew in the lagoon, among which Venice eventually became the most prominent. The city of Venice became a highly successful trading port, and by the inception of the 11th century dominated trade between Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. It also had

3268-429: The Venetian Republic caused hard times for glassmaking in Murano, and some of the Murano methods became lost. Controlled by France and Austria, Venetian glassmaking became unprofitable because of tariffs and taxes—and glassmakers that survived were reduced to making mostly beads. Napoleon closed the Venetian glass factories in 1807, although simple glassware and beadmaking continued. In the 1830s, outsiders tried to revive

3354-432: The appearance of the glass. Additional techniques were used as glassmaking evolved. To improve clarity, molten glass was put in water and then re-melted. Another technique was to purify the flux by boiling and filtering. The Venetian glassmakers had a set of tools that changed little for hundreds of years. A ferro sbuso , also called a canna da soffio , is the blowpipe essential for extracting molten glass and beginning

3440-477: The batch of ingredients was a two-stage process. First, nearly equal amounts of silica and flux were continuously stirred in a special furnace. The furnace was called a calchera furnace, and the mix was called fritta . In the second stage, the fritta was mixed with selected recycled waste glass (cullet) and melted in another furnace. Depending on the type and color of glass, other additives were used. Lead and tin were added for white opaque glass ( latimo ). Cobalt

3526-448: The best quality. Only one glass house in Murano was still making mirrors by 1772. Murrine technique begins with the layering of colored liquid glass, heated to 1,040 °C (1,900 °F), which is then stretched into long rods called canes. When cooled, these canes are then sliced in cross-sections, which reveals the layered pattern. Ercole Barovier, a descendant of Murano's greatest glassmaker Angelo Barovier, won numerous awards during

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3612-539: The canal's future. The advice of the Chevalier de Clerville , architect to Louis XIV , was to cross the river Aude rather than tunnel through the hill. Riquet, however, maintained his preference for a tunnel because of the extra problems that crossing the Aude would create. Riquet's response was to ask his master mason, Pascal de Nissan, to continue tunneling in secret despite the risk of collapse. In less than eight days

3698-514: The confiscated goods of an uncle, Pussort. In 1648, he and his wife Marie Charron, received 40,000 crowns from an unknown source; and in 1649 Colbert became the councilor of state, i.e. a political minister. In 1657, he purchased the Barony of Seignelay . Colbert was recommended to King Louis XIV by Mazarin. While Cardinal Mazarin was in exile, Louis's trust in Colbert grew. In 1652 Colbert

3784-411: The delinquent and destruction of the goods concerned, and, on the third offense, by the pillory . Colbert prohibited the production of certain products that might have suited consumers, and the time-consuming supervision he imposed on commercial enterprises may have acted as a hindrance to improvement. Other parts of Colbert's schemes have met with less equivocal condemnation. By his firm maintenance of

3870-459: The eighth century, it became concentrated in Murano by law beginning in 1291: since glass factories often caught fire, this removed much of the possibility of a major fire disaster for the city. Venetian glassmakers developed secret recipes and methods for making glass, and the concentration of Venice's glassmaking on the island of Murano enabled better control of those secrets. Murano became Europe's luxury glassmaking center, peaking in popularity in

3956-407: The family continued in the business after his death. He died in 1460. During the 1700s, Giuseppe Briati was famous for his work with ornamented mirrors and chandeliers. Briati's chandelier style was called ciocche —literally bouquet of flowers. Briati's typical chandelier was large with multiple arms decorated with garlands, flowers and leaves. One of the common uses of the huge Murano chandeliers

4042-411: The first blow at the man accused of being the greatest of the royal embezzlers, the superintendent Nicolas Fouquet . Fouquet's fall secured Colbert's own advancement. After the abolition of the office of superintendent and of many other offices dependent upon it, control of France's finances fell to a royal council. The sovereign functioned as its president, but Colbert, though only an intendant for

4128-503: The first four years, operated as its ruling spirit, enjoying as he did king's favor and confidence. His ruthlessness in the execution of his functions may have set a dangerous precedent, but it probably struck him necessary in that the council could not defer to individual interests. This way of administering his policies was particularly in evidence in his preparation and enforcement of his forestry ordinance of 1669 . When he had severely punished guilty officials, he turned his attention to

4214-482: The glass composition) was added to enable the silica to melt at a lower temperature. A stabilizer, usually lime (calcium oxide as about 10 percent of the glass) was also added for durability and to prevent solubility in water. Small quantities of other ingredients were added to the glass, mostly to affect appearance. Sand is a common source for silica. For certain types of glass, the Murano glassmakers used quartz as their source for silica. Quartz pebbles were crushed into

4300-548: The glass works. Briati died in Venice in 1772, and is buried in Murano. Cristallo is a soda glass, created during the 15th century by Murano's Angelo Barovier. The oldest reference to cristallo is dated May 24, 1453. At the time, cristallo was considered Europe's clearest glass, and is one of the main reasons Murano became "the most important glass center". The name arose because it looked like rock crystal or clear quartz, which had long been carved into various types of vessels and small hardstone carvings . Rock crystal

4386-417: The glassmakers, confined to Murano. This prevented the spread of Venetian glassmaking expertise to potential competitors. Glassmakers were not allowed to leave the island without permission from the government. Leaving without permission, or revealing trade secrets, was punishable by death. Locating the industry on a single island also made it easier for the government to monitor imports and exports. Murano in

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4472-429: The government's fraudulent creditors. Here he had a simple way of operating. He repudiated some of the public loans and reduced the interest rate on others. The amount of the reduction was initially his own decision but ultimately that of a council he established to examine all claims against the state. Much more serious difficulties met his attempts to introduce equality in taxation among the various classes. Cutting back

4558-407: The hot summer, during which furnace repair and maintenance was performed. During the 1300s, the annual summer vacation lasted five months. In the 1400s, the Venetian government shortened the summer vacation to three and a half months. Murano glassmakers sometimes complained they were not working enough. Glassmakers also enjoyed heightened social status. On December 22, 1376, it was announced that if

4644-494: The hot-work pieces added to the sides of the stems of glasses. The glass was extremely thin, and therefore fragile, adding to the effect of luxury. In 1612 the Florentine priest Antonio Neri published L’Arte Vetraria ( The Art of Glass ), which revealed all the secrets of Venetian glass production to the outside world, and by the later 16th century the efforts of the Venetian Republic to hold on to its virtual monopoly in

4730-483: The industry. However, it was not until Venice became part of Italy in 1866 that Murano glassmaking could experience a revival. Around that time, local leaders such as the mayor of Murano Antonio Colleoni and Abbot Vincenzo Zanetti (founder of the Murano Glass Museum ), along with Murano manufacturers such as Fratelli Toso, began reinventing the earlier Murano techniques for making glass. Antonio Salviati,

4816-466: The islands to escape barbarian invaders. The earliest archaeological evidence of a glass factory in the area comes from the Venetian lagoon island of Torcello and dates from the seventh or eighth century. The original Venetian glassmakers were joined by glassmakers from Byzantium and from the Middle East—which enriched their glassmaking knowledge. Glass was made in the Middle East long before it

4902-542: The late 1930s. Flavio Poli was known for using this technique, and it was made popular by Seguso Vetri d'Arte and the Mandruzzato family in the 1950s. This process is a popular technique for vases, and is sometimes used for sculptures. Eyeglasses are thought to have been invented in Italy; with Pisa, Venice, and Florence discussed as the location of the invention. Almost from the invention of eyeglasses sometime late in

4988-598: The merchant classes. When the king resolved to make all France Roman Catholic and revoked the Edict of Nantes , he followed him and urged his subordinates to do all they could to promote conversions . Colbert had nine children, including : His policies inspired those of Alexander Hamilton , the first treasury secretary of the United States. Six ships of the French Navy bore his name: In literature,

5074-446: The number of the privileged proved impossible, but Colbert firmly resisted false claims for exemption and lightened direct taxation by increasing indirect taxes, from which the privileged could not escape. At the same time, he undertook improvements to the way taxes were collected. Colbert's relentless hard work and thrift made him an esteemed minister. He achieved a reputation for improving the state of French manufacturing and bringing

5160-570: The people of the New World (Native Americans) were "delighted" with the beads as gifts, and beads became popular with American Indians . Calcedonio is a marbled glass that looked like the semiprecious stone chalcedony . This type of glass was created during the 1400s by Angelo Barovier , who is considered Murano's greatest glassmaker. Barovier was an expert glassblower, revived enameling , and also worked with colored glass. His family had been involved with glassmaking since at least 1331, and

5246-484: The power struggle between Colbert and Fouquet is one of the main plotlines of Alexandre Dumas, père 's novel The Vicomte of Bragelonne , the second sequel to The Three Musketeers . Dumas paints Colbert as an uncouth and ruthless schemer who stops at little, in contrast to the more refined Fouquet, counselled by Aramis , but also as a visionary patriot. Colbert's statue stands outside the Assemblée nationale . It

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5332-545: The prestige of the image of France and the French royal family, Colbert played an active role in bringing the great Italian architect-sculptor, Gian Lorenzo Bernini , to Paris (June–October 1665), in order to design the new East Facade of the Louvre. This was a striking coup and caused a sensation because Bernini, the most famous artist in all of Europe, had never before (or after) consented to travel any significant distance to meet

5418-407: The production of luxury glass, mainly by keeping skilled workers in the republic, were beginning to fail. Other countries, often led by their monarchs, were keen to have their own fine glass industries, and tempted skilled workers away. This led to a diffusion of the Venetian style to many centres around Europe. The glass made in this movement is called façon de Venise (French for "Venetian style");

5504-523: The proposal that suggested seizing part of the wealth of the clergy . In his hatred of idleness, he ventured to suppress no less than seventeen fêtes , and he had a project for reducing the number of persons devoted to clerical and monastic life by increasing the age for taking vows . He showed himself initially unwilling to interfere with heresy , for he realised the commercial value of the Huguenots (French Protestants), who were well represented among

5590-496: The quality is typically rather lower than the Venetian originals, partly from difficulties sourcing the right materials, and the place of manufacture is often hard to discern. Engraved glass was a part of this diffusion, and initially was especially developed in Germany. Eventually, the dominance of cristallo came to an end. In 1673, English glass merchant George Ravenscroft created a clear glass he called crystalline —but it

5676-493: The queen of France, dukes, princes, generals, cardinals, archbishops, and ambassadors. Collectors of Murano glass included Henry VIII of England , Pope Clement VII , King Ferdinand of Hungary , Francis I of France , and Philip II of Spain . During the 16th century Murano glassmakers liberated themselves from the imitation of metalwork shapes, which had previously been their habit. Shapes became elongated and elegant, "then more elaborate and inclining to fantasy", for example in

5762-409: The shaping process. A borselle is a tong-like tool of various sizes used to shape glass that has not hardened. A borselle puntata is a similar tool, only it has a pattern that can be imprinted on the glass. A pontello is the pontil , an iron rod that holds the glass while work is done on the edge of the glass. A tagianti is a large scissors used to cut glass before it has hardened. A scagno

5848-446: The splendid, if in some cases specious, services that he rendered to literature, science and art. Colbert worked incessantly hard until his final hours. Work was his religion; he once pondered whether it was better to rise early and work or retire very late and work. He concluded that rising early and retiring late would be the ideal combination. Towards the end of his life he suffered from stomach aches, which caused him much distress. He

5934-579: The taxes paid by the people reached the King. The paper also contained an attack on Nicolas Fouquet . The postmaster of Paris, a spy of Fouquet's, read the letter, leading to a dispute which Mazarin attempted to suppress. In 1661, Mazarin died and Colbert "made sure of the King's favor" by revealing the location of some of Mazarin's hidden wealth. In January 1664 Colbert became the Superintendent of buildings ; in 1665 he became Controller-General of Finances ; in 1669, he became Secretary of State of

6020-553: The thirteenth century, Venice was an important hub for the manufacturing of spectacle lenses. The 16th century was the golden age for Venetian glassmaking in Murano. Major trading partners included the Spanish Indies , Italy, Spain, Ottoman Turkey , and the German-speaking states. At least 28 glassmaking furnaces were in Murano in 1581. Numerous leaders and dignitaries visited Murano during this century, including

6106-459: The tunnel was complete with a concrete ceiling throughout. The tunnel is 165m long with an arch 8m above the canal's surface, and removed the necessity for an extra lock . By the time the Malpas Tunnel was excavated in the seventeenth century, the hill had already for several centuries been the site of a tunnel, dug in the Middle Ages, to drain the Étang de Montady . This pre-existing tunnel

6192-463: The western hemisphere as the result of overland transport across the Eurasian continent ." From radiocarbon dating materials found near the beads, archaeologists estimated their arrival on the continent to sometime between 1440 and 1480, predating Christopher Columbus. The dating and provenance has however been challenged by other researchers who point out that such beads were first made in Venice in

6278-484: Was a French statesman who served as First Minister of State from 1661 until his death in 1683 under the rule of King Louis XIV . His lasting impact on the organization of the country's politics and markets, known as Colbertism , a doctrine often characterized as a variant of mercantilism , earned him the nickname le Grand Colbert ( [lə ɡʁɑ̃ kɔl.bɛʁ] ; "the Great Colbert"). A native of Reims , he

6364-425: Was appointed Intendant of Finances on 4 May 1661. Colbert took over as Controller-General of Finances , a newly created position, in the aftermath of the arrest of Nicolas Fouquet for embezzlement, an event that led to the abolishment of the office of Superintendent of Finances . He worked to develop the domestic economy by raising tariffs and encouraging major public works projects, as well as to ensure that

6450-483: Was asked to manage the affairs of the Cardinal while he was away. This new responsibility would detach Colbert from his other responsibility as commissaire des guerres . Although Colbert was not a supporter of Mazarin in principle, he would defend the cardinal's interests with unflagging devotion. Colbert's earliest recorded attempt at tax reform came in the form of a mémoire to Mazarin, showing that less than half of

6536-463: Was developed in Murano in the 1500s. By embedding glass canes (usually white but not always) in colorless glass, the glassware has a striped appearance. Vetro a fili has straight white stripes, vetro a retortoli has twisted or spiral patterns, and vetro a reticello has two sets of lines twisted in opposite directions. Francesco Zeno has been mentioned as the inventor of vetro a retortoli . Lattimo , or milk glass, began being made in Murano during

6622-648: Was interior lighting for theatres and important rooms in palaces. Briati was born in Murano in 1686, and his family's business was glassmaking. He was allowed to work in a Bohemian glass factory, where he learned the secrets of working with Bohemian crystal—which was becoming more popular than Murano cristallo . In 1739, the Council of Ten allowed him to move his furnace from Murano to Venice because his work had caused such jealousy that he and his workers feared for their lives. (His father had been stabbed to death in 1701.) Briati retired in 1762, and his nephew became manager of

6708-434: Was made in Europe, though Ancient Roman glass made in Italy, Germany and elsewhere could be extremely sophisticated. Early products included beads, glass for mosaics , jewelry, small mirrors, and window glass. Venetian glassmaking grew in importance to the city's economy. Around 1271 the local glassmakers' guild made rules to help preserve glassmaking secrets. It was forbidden to divulge trade secrets outside of Venice. If

6794-417: Was not stable. Three years later, he improved this glass by adding lead oxide, and lead glass (a.k.a. crystal) was created. Ravenscroft, who had lived for many years in Venice, made lead crystal that was less breakable than cristallo . In 1674, Bohemian glassmaker Louis le Vasseur d'Ossimont (1629-1689) made crystal that was similar to Ravenscroft's. In 1678, Johan Friedrich Kunkel von Lowenstein produced

6880-541: Was originally controlled by the Eastern Roman Empire before eventually becoming an independent city state . It flourished as a trading center and seaport in the High Middle Ages. Its connections with the Middle East helped its glassmakers gain additional skills, as glassmaking was more advanced in areas such as Syria and Egypt . Although Venetian glassmaking in factories existed as far back as

6966-484: Was perfected in Alexandria, Egypt, and began being used in Murano in the 15th century. Small mirrors were made in Murano beginning in the 1500s, and mirror makers had their own guild beginning in 1569. Murano mirrors were known for the artwork on the frame that held the mirror in addition to their quality. By the 1600s, Murano mirrors were in great demand. However, by the end of the century, English-made mirrors had

7052-479: Was reduced to eating moist bread dipped in chicken broth for his meals. By 64 he was bedridden and died seven days after his birthday. The surgeons who examined him found that he had been suffering from kidney stones . A huge stone was found in his urinary tract , which would explain his pain. Colbert played a subordinate role in the struggle between the king and the papacy over royal rights concerning vacant bishoprics , and he seems to have sympathised with

7138-456: Was said to have magical qualities and in the Middle Ages was often used in Christian religious objects. Cristallo became very popular. This type of glass was fragile and difficult to cut, but it could be enameled and engraved . Manganese dioxide, a de-coloring agent, was a key ingredient in the secret formula used to make cristallo . An easy modification to cristallo made in Murano

7224-431: Was to produce a frosted or crackle version. The use of "crystal" as a marketing term for glass has continued into modern times, though for at least the last century it has normally meant lead crystal glass of the type developed by Ravenscroft. Cristallo could be made extremely thin, thus reducing the remaining hint of color, and the Venetians usually made clear pieces this way. The filigrana (a.k.a. filigree) style

7310-424: Was used for blue glass. Copper and iron were used for green and for various shades of green, blue, and yellow. Manganese was used to remove colors. Although natural gas is the furnace fuel of choice for glassmaking today, the fuel mandated in Murano during the 13th century was alder and willow wood. During this second stage, the surface of the molten glass was skimmed to remove undesirable chemicals that affected

7396-613: Was vandalized in 2020 due to Colbert's part in drafting the Code noir . The main building of the Ministry of the Economy and Finance building , completed in 1989, is named after him. Venetian glass Venetian glass ( Italian : vetro veneziano ) is glassware made in Venice , typically on the island of Murano near the city. Traditionally it is made with a soda–lime "metal" and

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