Management (or managing ) is the administration of organizations, whether they are a business , a nonprofit organization , or a government body through business administration , nonprofit management , or the political science sub-field of public administration respectively. It is the process of managing the resources of businesses, governments, and other organizations.
116-518: Larger organizations generally have three hierarchical levels of managers, in a pyramid structure: Management is taught across different disciplines at colleges and universities. Prominent major degree programs in management include Management , Business Administration and Public Administration . Social scientists study management as an academic discipline , investigating areas such as social organization , organizational adaptation , and organizational leadership . In recent decades, there has been
232-505: A 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand . This pattern is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model. Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar , involve hierarchy. Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via
348-417: A Bachelor of Commerce or a Master of Business Administration degree. Some major organizations, including companies, non-profit organizations, and governments, require applicants to managerial or executive positions to hold at minimum bachelor's degree in a field related to administration or management, or in the case of business jobs, a Bachelor of Commerce or a similar degree. At the undergraduate level,
464-442: A chief financial officer , chief technology officer , and so on. They are responsible for controlling and overseeing the operations of the entire organization. They set a " tone at the top " and develop strategic plans , company policies , and make decisions on the overall direction of the organization. In addition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside resources. Senior managers are accountable to
580-514: A family tree ) and inheritance ( succession and heirship ). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs - according to Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning steps often follow a hierarchical scheme—to master differential equations one must first learn calculus ; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra ; and so on. Nature offers hierarchical structures, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy ,
696-475: A reverse hierarchy , the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings. Empirically, when we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in
812-670: A broad understanding of competition, world economies, and politics. In addition, the CEO is responsible for implementing and determining (within the board's framework) the broad policies of the organization. Executive management accomplishes the day-to-day details, including instructions for the preparation of department budgets, procedures, and schedules; appointment of middle-level executives such as department managers; coordination of departments; media and governmental relations; and shareholder communication. Consist of general managers , branch managers and department managers. They are accountable to
928-446: A containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming . Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy " subsumes " its children, and a compositional hierarchy is " composed " of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional . A subsumptive containment hierarchy
1044-527: A dedicated personnel department. By 1929 that number had grown to over one-third. Formal management education became standardized at colleges and universities. Colleges and universities capitalized on the needs of corporations by forming business schools and corporate placement departments. This shift toward formal business education marked the creation of a corporate elite in the US. By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as
1160-423: A definition for a word is similar to providing an explanans for an explanandum in a context where practitioners are expected to use a deductive system . While, from a linguistic prescriptivist perspective, any dictionary might be believed to dictate correct usage, the linguistic descriptivist perspective recognizes that looking up words in dictionaries is not itself a rule-following practice independent of
1276-460: A directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching . In a linear hierarchy , the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. This
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#17327722873741392-402: A file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located. For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at
1508-428: A generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example: A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be
1624-511: A hierarchy of persons. In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages ) persons occur in a hierarchy of salience . To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject. On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun-phrase to which it refers commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways. The structure of
1740-444: A high priest', from hierarkhes , 'president of sacred rites') is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) that are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as architecture , philosophy , design , mathematics , computer science , organizational theory , systems theory , systematic biology , and
1856-406: A higher-level entity can have on x' s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous . Kulish (2002) suggests that almost every system of organization which humans apply to the world is arranged hierarchically. Some conventional definitions of the terms "nation" and "government" suggest that every nation has a government and that every government
1972-490: A larger circle of words. For example, the definition of the primary word is defined using two other words, which are defined with two other words, etc., creating a definitional chain. This can continue until the primary word is used to define one of the words used in the chain, closing the wide circle of terms. If all definitions rely on the definitions of other words in a very large, but finite chain, then all text-based definitions are ultimately circular. Extension (semantics) to
2088-535: A manager's organization and a foe's. The writings of influential Chinese Legalist philosopher Shen Buhai may be considered to embody a rare premodern example of abstract theory of administration. American philosopher Herrlee G. Creel and other scholars find the influence of Chinese administration in Europe by the 12th century. Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain's consul in Guangzhou , argued in his Desultory Notes on
2204-537: A market embracing diversity and a rising service industry. Managers are currently being trained to encourage greater equality for minorities and women in the workplace, by offering increased flexibility in working hours, better retraining, and innovative (and usually industry-specific) performance markers. Managers destined for the service sector are being trained to use unique measurement techniques, better worker support, and more charismatic leadership styles. Human resources finds itself increasingly working with management in
2320-464: A movement for evidence-based management . The English verb manage has its roots in the fifteenth-century French verb mesnager , which often referred in equestrian language "to hold in hand the reins of a horse". Also the Italian term maneggiare (to handle, especially tools or a horse) is possible. In Spanish , manejar can also mean to rule the horses. These three terms derive from
2436-529: A musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis ), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music , by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff ). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are
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#17327722873742552-428: A part of a rake". However, if more specific differences are added, then the effect of circularity may disappear: "rake: a gardening implement with a long handle with three or more tines arranged on crossbar at 90° to the handle and the tines at 90° to both crossbar and handle"; in this case, "tine" is most usefully defined with reference to "rake", but with additional differences providing points of comparison, e.g.: "tine:
2668-532: A philosophy. Critics, however, find this definition useful but far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining management without circularity , the shifting nature of definitions and the connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or of a class . One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to " business administration " and thus excludes management in places outside commerce , for example in charities and in
2784-453: A physical or mechanical mechanism) implies human motivation and implies some sort of successful progress or system outcome. As such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism (machine or automated program), not the herding of animals, and can occur either in a legal or in an illegal enterprise or environment. From an individual's perspective, management does not need to be seen solely from an enterprise point of view, because management
2900-410: A problem. The use of parentheses is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example: (2 + 5) × (7 - 4). In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with
3016-439: A quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle , hexagon , etc. Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae ), a human can be formulated as: Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy ), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies
3132-404: A required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation . Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into
3248-442: A sharp spike at the end of a rake". In practice, a pragmatic approach is often taken in considering the effects of circularity in dictionary definitions. Formal approaches to characterizing circular definitions are found in logic , mathematics and in computer science . A branch of mathematics called non-well-founded set theory allows for the construction of circular sets. Circular sets are good for modelling cycles, and, despite
3364-411: A thing" → "thing: an entity" → "entity: an object" has a depth of three. The classic "genus-difference" dictionary definition is in terms of nearest kind ( genus proximum ) and specific differences ( differentia specifica ). This genus-difference description may be involved in producing circular definitions of part and kind relationships, for example: "rake: an implement with three or more tines" → "tine:
3480-419: A thoroughly scientific basis (see scientism for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include Henry R. Towne 's Science of management in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor 's The Principles of Scientific Management (1911), Lillian Gilbreth 's Psychology of Management (1914), Frank and Lillian Gilbreth 's Applied motion study (1917), and Henry L. Gantt 's charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote
3596-437: A training capacity to help collect management data on the success (or failure) of management actions with employees. Good practices identified for managers include "walking the shop floor", and, especially for managers who are new in post, identifying and achieving some "quick wins" which demonstrate visible success in establishing appropriate objectives. Leadership writer John Kotter uses the phrase "Short-Term Wins" to express
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3712-466: A world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would become, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology . The theoretical foundations are summarized by thermodynamics . When biological systems are modeled as physical systems , in the most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and
3828-555: Is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status). Possibly the first use of the English word hierarchy cited by the Oxford English Dictionary
3944-441: Is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and " IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that
4060-404: Is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be " strict "—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this: The notation x ⊊ y {\displaystyle x\subsetneq y\,} means x is a subset of y but is not equal to y . A general example of
4176-485: Is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets . The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls . Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll;
4292-508: Is a member of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia ; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of " concepts ". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal. A compositional containment hierarchy
4408-405: Is always transitive . The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects. Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset . The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with
4524-420: Is always the same. In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion . Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic. A containment hierarchy
4640-902: Is an essential function in improving one's life and relationships . Management is therefore everywhere and it has a wider range of application. Communication and a positive endeavor are two main aspects of it either through enterprise or through independent pursuit. Plans, measurements , motivational psychological tools, goals, and economic measures (profit, etc.) may or may not be necessary components for there to be management. At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting plans , and meeting goals , but this applies even in situations where planning does not take place. From this perspective, Henri Fayol (1841–1925) considers management to consist of five functions : In another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), allegedly defined management as "the art of getting things done through people". She described management as
4756-507: Is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner. The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life . Every person can be reduced to organ systems , which are composed of organs , which are composed of tissues , which are composed of cells , which are composed of molecules , which are composed of atoms . In fact,
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4872-490: Is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy ) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings. A hierarchy
4988-622: Is deficient if the audience must either already know the meaning of the key term, or if the term to be defined is used in the definition itself. Such definitions lead to a need for additional information that motivated someone to look at the definition in the first place and, thus, violate the principle of providing new or useful information. Here are some examples: Consequently, when constructing systems of definitions, authors should use good practices that avoid producing viciously circular definitions. In many learner's dictionaries, circular definitions are greatly reduced by writing definitions using only
5104-507: Is explained below in specifications of their different responsibilities and likely job titles. The top or senior layer of management is a small group which consists of the board of directors (including non-executive directors , executive directors and independent directors ), president , vice-president , CEOs and other members of the C-level executives. Different organizations have various members in their C-suite, which may include
5220-631: Is hierarchical. Sociologists can analyse socioeconomic systems in terms of stratification into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes ( taxonomies ) are hierarchical. Most organized religions , regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under deities and priesthoods . Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership . Families can be viewed as hierarchical structures in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in
5336-598: Is infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point. Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy . In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power or authority , and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments , companies , armed forces , militia and organized religions . The units or persons within an organization may be depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart . In
5452-420: Is one such form. Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below ). In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies: In a mathematical context (in graph theory ), the general terminology used is different. Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but
5568-590: Is referring to the objects and not the levels ; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. In a branching hierarchy , one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes . The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on
5684-401: Is the midway management of a categorized organization, being secondary to the senior management but above the deepest levels of operational members. An operational manager may be well-thought-out by middle management or may be categorized as a non-management operator, liable to the policy of the specific organization. The efficiency of the middle level is vital in any organization since it bridges
5800-706: Is the most popular professional degree at the master's level and can be obtained from many universities in the United States. MBA programs provide further education in management and leadership for graduate students. Other master's degrees in business and management include Master of Management (MM) and the Master of Science (M.Sc.) in business administration or management, which is typically taken by students aiming to become researchers or professors. There are also specialized master's degrees in administration for individuals aiming at careers outside of business , such as
5916-420: Is typically depicted as a pyramid , where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex , and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates. These pyramids are often diagrammed with a triangle diagram which serves to emphasize
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#17327722873746032-438: Is used in different contexts (e.g., those related to plants, trees, flowers, and seeds) that generate ever-branching networks of usages. In another case it might produce a true circle. Taken as a whole, dictionaries are circular because each and every word is defined in terms of words that are also contained within the dictionary. ( A person could not pick up a (foreign) dictionary and make any sense of it unless they already know
6148-484: The "postal district" , consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy , because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter positions allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System
6264-591: The Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), the Doctor of Public Administration (DPA), the Ph.D. in business administration, the Ph.D. in management, and the Ph.D. in political science with a concentration in public administration. In the 2010s, doctorates in business administration and management were available with many specializations. While management trends can change fast, the long-term trend in management has been defined by
6380-436: The Master of Public Administration (MPA) degree (also offered as a Master of Arts or Master of Science in public administration in some universities), for students aiming to become managers or executives in the public service and the Master of Health Administration , for students aiming to become managers or executives in the health care and hospital sector. Management doctorates are the most advanced terminal degrees in
6496-794: The government jobs . Many colleges and universities also offer certificates and diplomas in business administration or management, which typically require one to two years of full-time study. To manage technological areas, one often needs an undergraduate degree in a STEM area . At the graduate level students aiming at careers as managers or executives may choose to specialize in major subareas of management or business administration such as entrepreneurship , human resources , international business , organizational behavior , organizational theory , strategic management , accounting , corporate finance , entertainment, global management, healthcare management , investment management , sustainability and real estate . A Master of Business Administration (MBA)
6612-477: The organization of life , and biomass pyramids attempt to document. While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal-code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept,
6728-581: The public sector . More broadly, every organization must "manage" its work, people, processes, technology, etc. to maximize effectiveness. Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management as " business schools ". Some such institutions (such as the Harvard Business School ) use that name, while others (such as the Yale School of Management ) employ the broader term "management". English speakers may also use
6844-579: The set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy. Other hierarchical representations related to biology include ecological pyramids which illustrate energy flow or trophic levels in ecosystems , and taxonomic hierarchies, including the Linnean classification scheme and phylogenetic trees that reflect inferred patterns of evolutionary relationship among living and extinct species. CGI and computer-animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On
6960-473: The social sciences (especially political science ). A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates , although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in
7076-414: The term (s) being defined as part of the description or assumes that the term(s) being described are already known. There are several kinds of circular definition, and several ways of characterising the term: pragmatic , lexicographic and linguistic . Circular definitions are related to circular reasoning in that they both involve a self-referential approach. Circular definitions may be unhelpful if
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#17327722873747192-414: The 1940s, Patrick Blackett worked in the development of the applied-mathematics science of operations research , initially for military operations. Operations research, sometimes known as " management science " (but distinct from Taylor's scientific management ), attempts to take a scientific approach to solving decision problems and can apply directly to multiple management problems, particularly in
7308-683: The Government and People of China (1847) that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only," and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution meritocratic . Influenced by the ancient Chinese imperial examination , the Northcote–Trevelyan Report of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be on
7424-546: The Indian Arthashastra by Chanakya (written around 300 BC), and The Prince by Italian author Niccolò Machiavelli ( c. 1515 ). Written in 1776 by Adam Smith , a Scottish moral philosopher , The Wealth of Nations discussed efficient organization of work through division of labour . Smith described how changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of pins . While individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed
7540-488: The Oxford Dictionary of English: Therefore, a punishment means "a punishment imposed for breaking a law, rule, or contract inflicted as punishment inflicted on someone as punishment inflicted or retribution exacted for an injury or wrong for a wrong or criminal act for an offence". Obviously, this is not the final result of substitution as this would result in an endlessly long sentence. Linguistically,
7656-489: The actual things that referring terms like nouns stand for, provided that agreement on reference is accomplished, is one method of breaking this circularity, but this is outside the capacity of a text-based definition. The 2007 Merriam-Webster dictionary defines a "hill" and a "mountain" this way: Merriam-Webster's online dictionary provides another example of a circular definition with the words "condescending" and "patronizing:" From "condescension": To "patronize": From
7772-561: The areas of logistics and operations. Some of the later 20th-century developments include the theory of constraints (introduced in 1984), management by objectives (systematized in 1954), re-engineering (the early 1990s), Six Sigma (1986), management by walking around (1970s), the Viable system model (1972), and various information-technology -driven theories such as agile software development (so-named from 2001), as well as group-management theories such as Cog's Ladder (1972) and
7888-455: The audience must either already know the meaning of the key term, or if the term to be defined is used in the definition itself. In linguistics, a circular definition is a description of the meaning of a lexeme that is constructed using one or more synonymous lexemes that are all defined in terms of each other. From a pragmatic point of view, circular definitions may be characterised in terms of new, useful or helpful information: A definition
8004-418: The basis of merit determined through competitive examination, candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, and promotion should be through achievement rather than "preferment, patronage, or purchase". This led to implementation of Her Majesty's Civil Service as a systematic, meritocratic civil service bureaucracy. Like the British, the development of French bureaucracy
8120-417: The best available evidence. As with other evidence-based practice, this is based on the three principles of published peer-reviewed (often in management or social science journals) research evidence that bears on whether and why a particular management practice works; judgment and experience from contextual management practice, to understand the organization and interpersonal dynamics in a situation and determine
8236-484: The centuries faced the problems of exploiting and motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises , given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically. However, innovations such as the spread of Arabic numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided tools for management assessment, planning and control. With
8352-594: The changing workplaces of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries, military theory and practice contributed approaches to managing the newly popular factories . Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and recording before the Industrial Revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with
8468-411: The day-to-day activities of the organization. However, this varies depending on the type (e.g., public versus private), size, and culture of the organization. These directors are theoretically liable for breaches of that duty and are typically insured under directors and officers liability insurance . Fortune 500 directors are estimated to spend 4.4 hours per week on board duties, and median compensation
8584-515: The degree. A flat hierarchy (also known for companies as flat organization ) is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles. An overlapping hierarchy
8700-414: The field of business and management. Most individuals obtaining management doctorates take the programs to obtain the training in research methods, statistical analysis, and writing academic papers that they will need to seek careers as researchers, senior consultants, and/or professors in business administration or management. There are several types of management doctorates: the Doctor of Management (DM),
8816-417: The field's name, this area of mathematics is well founded. Computer science allows for procedures to be defined by using recursion . Such definitions are not circular as long as they terminate. Dictionary entries are often given as examples of apparent circular definitions. Dictionary production, as a project in lexicography , should not be confused with a mathematical or logical activity, where giving
8932-509: The first college management textbook in 1911. In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became the first management consultant of the " Japanese management style ". His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese quality assurance . The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. The Harvard Business School offered the first Master of Business Administration degree (MBA) in 1921. People like Henri Fayol (1841–1925) and Alexander Church (1866–1936) described
9048-425: The foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz , which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature. Circular definition A circular definition is a type of definition that uses
9164-721: The gap between top-level and bottom-level staff. Their functions include: Line managers include supervisors , section leaders, forepersons, and team leaders. They focus on controlling and directing regular employees. They are usually responsible for assigning employees tasks, guiding and supervising employees on day-to-day activities, ensuring the quality and quantity of production and/or service, making recommendations and suggestions to employees on their work, and channeling employee concerns that they cannot resolve to mid-level managers or other administrators. Low-level or "front-line" managers also act as role models for their employees. In some types of work, front-line managers may also do some of
9280-434: The give-and-take of using words in context. Thus, the example of a definition of oak given above (something that has catkins and grows from acorns) is not completely useless, even if "acorn" and "catkin" are defined in terms of "oak", in that it supplies additional concepts (e.g., the concept of catkin) in the definition. While a dictionary might produce a "circle" among the terms, "oak", "catkin", and "acorn", each of these
9396-774: The growing size and complexity of organizations, a distinction between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties, or groups of shareholders ) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common. The field of management originated in ancient China, including possibly the first highly centralized bureaucratic state, and the earliest (by the second century BC) example of an administration based on merit through testing . Some theorists have cited ancient military texts as providing lessons for civilian managers. For example, Chinese general Sun Tzu in his 6th-century BC work The Art of War recommends (when re-phrased in modern terminology) being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both
9512-453: The idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures , objects are known as nodes , superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children . In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague . Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in
9628-527: The last two levels apply to all matter , at least at the macroscopic scale . Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children . In this particular example, there are also emergent properties —functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain )—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not
9744-429: The left and descending on the right. Child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and parent elements are at the top. This structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which: The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships ; the association between two objects
9860-500: The meaning of a minimal subset of a number of words without having the need to refer to the dictionary for said meaning. ) A circular definition crept into the classic definition of death that was once "the permanent cessation of the flow of vital bodily fluids", which raised the question "what makes a fluid vital?" Definitions in lexicography can be broadly or narrowly circular. Narrowly circular definitions simply define one word in terms of another. A broadly circular definition has
9976-492: The most common business programs are the Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.). These typically comprise a four-year program designed to give students an overview of the role of managers in planning and directing within an organization. Course topics include accounting, financial management, statistics, marketing, strategy, and other related areas. Many other undergraduate degrees include
10092-484: The need for clerks, bookkeepers, secretaries and managers expanded. The demand for trained managers led college and university administrators to consider and move forward with plans to create the first schools of business on their campuses. At the turn of the twentieth century, the need for skilled and trained managers had become increasingly apparent. The demand occurred as personnel departments began to expand rapidly. In 1915, less than one in twenty manufacturing firms had
10208-538: The notion of "thriving on chaos" (1987). As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for popularised systems of management ideas to peddle their wares. In this context, many management fads may have had more to do with pop psychology than with scientific theories of management. Hierarchy A hierarchy (from Greek : ἱεραρχία , hierarkhia , 'rule of
10324-464: The organization. Colleges and universities around the world offer bachelor's degrees, graduate degrees, diplomas, and certificates in management; generally within their colleges of business, business schools, or faculty of management but also in other related departments. Higher education has been characterized as a necessary factor in the managerial revolution in the 20th century. While some professions require academic credentials in order to work in
10440-560: The phenomenon of management from a sociological perspective. Peter Drucker (1909–2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: Concept of the Corporation (published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors until 1956) commissioning a study of the organization . Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein. H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890–1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management studies. In
10556-415: The plans and goals that affect the entire organization. These individuals typically have titles such as executive vice president, president, managing director, chief operating officer, chief executive officer, or board chairman. These managers are classified in a hierarchy of authority and perform different tasks. In many organizations, the number of managers at every level resembles a pyramid. Each level
10672-491: The pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi- mass production before wage slavery eclipsed chattel slavery. Salaried managers as an identifiable group first became prominent in the late 19th century. As large corporations began to overshadow small family businesses the need for personnel management positions became more necessary. Businesses grew into large corporations and
10788-407: The problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations. A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy
10904-508: The profession (e.g., law, medicine, and engineering, which require, respectively the Bachelor of Law , Doctor of Medicine , and Bachelor of Engineering degrees), management and administration positions do not necessarily require the completion of academic degrees. Some well-known senior executives in the US who did not complete a degree include Steve Jobs , Bill Gates and Mark Zuckerberg . However, many managers and executives have completed some type of business or management training, such as
11020-431: The risks and benefits of available actions; and the preferences and values of those affected. Some see management as a late-modern (in the sense of late modernity ) conceptualization. On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history – only harbingers (such as stewards ). Others, however, detect management-like thought among ancient Sumerian traders and the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt . Slave owners through
11136-477: The rules of visual hierarchy . Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers. An example of visually representing hierarchy is through nested clusters. Nested clusters represent hierarchical relationships using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram . This structure is most effective in representing simple hierarchical relationships. For example, when directing someone to open
11252-501: The same direction, following a path . All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues ; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy
11368-423: The same idea. As in all work, achieving an appropriate work-life balance for self and others is an important management practice. Evidence-based management is an emerging movement to use the current, best evidence in management and decision-making . It is part of the larger movement towards evidence-based practices . Evidence-based management entails managerial decisions and organizational practices informed by
11484-469: The same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class . "Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to
11600-489: The same tasks that employees do, at least some of the time. For example, in some restaurants, the front-line managers will also serve customers during a very busy period of the day. In general, line managers are considered part of the workforce and not part of the organization's proper management despite performing traditional management functions. Front-line managers typically provide: Some front-line managers may also provide career planning for employees who aim to rise within
11716-527: The semantic development of the English word management in the 17th and 18th centuries. Views on the definition and scope of management include: Management involves identifying the mission , objective, procedures , rules and manipulation of the human capital of an enterprise to contribute to the success of the enterprise. Scholars have focused on the management of individual, organizational, and inter-organizational relationships. This implies effective communication : an enterprise environment (as opposed to
11832-427: The shareholders, the general public, and public bodies that oversee corporations and similar organizations. Some members of the senior management may serve as the public face of the organization, and they may make speeches to introduce new strategies or appear in marketing . The board of directors is typically primarily composed of non-executives who owe a fiduciary duty to shareholders and are not closely involved in
11948-470: The size differences between the levels (but not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid ). An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. Another common representation of a hierarchical scheme is as a tree diagram . Phylogenetic trees , charts showing the structure of § Organizations , and playoff brackets in sports are often illustrated this way. More recently, as computers have allowed
12064-649: The steps involved in the manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled the production of 48,000 pins per day. Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723–1790) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) provided a theoretical background to resource allocation , production (economics) , and pricing issues. About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney (1765–1825), James Watt (1736–1819), and Matthew Boulton (1728–1809) developed elements of technical production such as standardization , quality-control procedures, cost-accounting , interchangeability of parts, and work-planning . Many of these aspects of management existed in
12180-399: The storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees . In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on
12296-460: The study of management, such as Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees with a major in business administration or management and the Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BS) in political science (PoliSci) with a concentration in public administration or the Bachelor of Public Administration (B.P.A), a degree designed for individuals aiming to work as bureaucrats in
12412-407: The term "management" or "the management" as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a corporation . Historically this use of the term often contrasted with the term labor – referring to those being managed. A common management structure of organizations includes three management levels: low-level, middle-level, and top-level managers. Low-level managers manage
12528-479: The top management for their department's function. They devote more time to organizational and directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized as executing organizational plans in conformance with the company's policies and the top management's objectives, defining and discussing information and policies from top management to lower management, and most importantly, inspiring and providing guidance to lower-level managers towards better performance. Middle management
12644-430: The top weaknesses of CEOs were " mentoring skills" and "board engagement", and 10% of companies never evaluated the CEO. The board may also have certain employees (e.g., internal auditors ) report to them or directly hire independent contractors ; for example, the board (through the audit committee ) typically selects the auditor . Helpful skills for top management vary by the type of organization but typically include
12760-534: The two Latin words manus (hand) and agere (to act). The French word for housekeeping , ménagerie , derived from ménager ("to keep house"; compare ménage for "household"), also encompasses taking care of domestic animals. Ménagerie is the French translation of Xenophon 's famous book Oeconomicus ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Οἰκονομικός ) on household matters and husbandry . The French word mesnagement (or ménagement ) influenced
12876-496: The various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891–1973), Walter Scott (1869–1955) and J. Mooney applied the principles of psychology to management. Other writers, such as Elton Mayo (1880–1949), Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), Chester Barnard (1886–1961), Max Weber (1864–1920), who saw what he called the "administrator" as bureaucrat , Rensis Likert (1903–1981), and Chris Argyris (born 1923) approached
12992-435: The words in a constrained defining vocabulary . From a lexicographic point of view, the simplest form of circular definition in a dictionary is in terms of synonyms, and the number of steps for closing the definition chain into a circle is known as the depth of the circular definition: the circular definition "object: a thing" → "thing: an object" is a circular definition with a depth of two. The circular definition "object:
13108-594: The work of non-managerial individuals who are directly involved with the production or creation of the organization's products. Low-level managers are often called supervisors, but may also be called line managers, office managers, or even foremen. Middle managers include all levels of management between the low level and the top level of the organization. These managers manage the work of low-level managers and may have titles such as department head, project leader, plant manager, or division manager. Top managers are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing
13224-448: Was $ 212,512 in 2010. The board sets corporate strategy, makes major decisions such as major acquisitions, and hires, evaluates, and fires the top-level manager ( chief executive officer or CEO). The CEO typically hires other positions. However, board involvement in the hiring of other positions such as the chief financial officer (CFO) has increased. In 2013, a survey of over 160 CEOs and directors of public and private companies found that
13340-606: Was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία, hierarchia ) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy . The Greek term hierarchia means 'rule of a high priest', from hierarches (ἱεράρχης, 'president of sacred rites, high-priest') and that from hiereus (ἱερεύς, 'priest') and arche (ἀρχή, 'first place or power, rule'). Dionysius
13456-703: Was influenced by the Chinese system. Voltaire claimed that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and François Quesnay advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese. French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on general cultural studies. These features have been likened to the earlier Chinese model. Various ancient and medieval civilizations produced " mirrors for princes " books, which aimed to advise new monarchs on how to govern. Plato described job specialization in 350 BC, and Alfarabi listed several leadership traits in AD 900. Other examples include
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