70-404: The Mantaro Valley , also known as Jauja Valley , is a fluvial inter-Andean valley of Junin region , 200 kilometres (120 mi) east of Lima , the capital of Peru . The Mantaro River flows through the fertile valley which produces potatoes , maize , and vegetables among other crops. The Mantaro Valley is also renowned as an area containing many archaeological sites. At the northern end of
140-456: A craft of burning intricate creation designs on the surface of gourds (macas). Andes The Andes ( / ˈ æ n d iː z / AN -deez ), Andes Mountains or Andean Mountain Range ( Spanish : Cordillera de los Andes ; Quechua : Anti ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America . The range
210-555: A higher potential for larger, high-magnitude earthquakes in the future. The mountain range is also a source of shallow intraplate earthquakes within the South American Plate. The largest such earthquake (as of 2024) struck Peru in 1947 and measured M s 7.5. In the Peruvian Andes, these earthquakes display normal ( 1946 ), strike-slip (1976), and reverse ( 1969 , 1983) mechanisms. The Amazonian Craton
280-566: A joint ice stream network. The Andes' dendritic glacier arms, components of valley glaciers, were up to 112.5 km (69.9 mi) long and over 1,250 m (4,101 ft) thick, and spanned a vertical distance of 5,150 m (16,896 ft). The climatic glacier snowline (ELA) was lowered from 4,600 m (15,092 ft) to 3,200 m (10,499 ft) at glacial times. The Andean region cuts across several natural and floristic regions, due to its extension, from Caribbean Venezuela to cold, windy, and wet Cape Horn passing through
350-603: A mountain range present surrounding the valley in the shape of a man's body. This legend of the Huancan warrior of Laguna de Paca has numerous variations and explains the deep connection many residents of the town of Paca have with the Mantaro Valley. The Huanca (or Wanka) people were eventually subdued during the reign of the Inca King Pachacutec , but in revenge for their oppression took sides with
420-594: A north–south axis of cultural influences. A long series of cultural development culminated in the expansion of the Inca civilization and Inca Empire in the central Andes during the 15th century. The Incas formed this civilization through imperialistic militarism as well as careful and meticulous governmental management. The government sponsored the construction of aqueducts and roads in addition to pre-existing installations. Some of these constructions still exist today. Devastated by European diseases and by civil war ,
490-737: A series of changes resulting from the Andean orogeny. Parts of the Sunsás Orogen in Amazonian craton disappeared from the surface of the earth, being overridden by the Andes. The Sierras de Córdoba , where the effects of the ancient Pampean orogeny can be observed, owe their modern uplift and relief to the Andean orogeny in the Tertiary . Further south in southern Patagonia , the onset of
560-634: A typical location for calc-alkalic and subduction volcanism, the Andean Volcanic Belt has a large range of volcano-tectonic settings, such as rift systems, extensional zones, transpressional faults , subduction of mid-ocean ridges , and seamount chains apart from a large range of crustal thicknesses and magma ascent paths, and different amount of crustal assimilations. The Andes Mountains host large ore and salt deposits, and some of their eastern fold and thrust belts act as traps for commercially exploitable amounts of hydrocarbons . In
630-536: A whole glacier in the ablation area or in the accumulation area . In the high Andes of Central Chile and Mendoza Province , rock glaciers are larger and more common than glaciers; this is due to the high exposure to solar radiation . In these regions, glaciers occur typically at higher altitudes than rock glaciers. The lowest active rock glaciers occur at 900 m a.s.l. in Aconcagua . Though precipitation increases with height, there are semiarid conditions in
700-475: Is 8,900 km (5,530 mi) long and 200 to 700 km (124 to 435 mi) wide (widest between 18°S and 20°S latitude ) and has an average height of about 4,000 m (13,123 ft). The Andes extend from South to North through seven South American countries: Argentina , Chile , Bolivia , Peru , Ecuador , Colombia , and Venezuela . Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, separated by intermediate depressions . The Andes are
770-561: Is a result of the subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South American Plate. The belt is subdivided into four main volcanic zones that are separated from each other by volcanic gaps. The volcanoes of the belt are diverse in terms of activity style, products, and morphology. While some differences can be explained by which volcanic zone a volcano belongs to, there are significant differences inside volcanic zones and even between neighboring volcanoes. Despite being
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#1732772800921840-551: Is actively underthrusted beneath the sub-Andes region of Peru, producing thrust faults. In Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, thrust faulting occurs along the sub-Andes due in response to compression brought on by subduction, while in the high Andes, normal faulting occurs in response to gravitational forces. In the extreme south, a major transform fault separates Tierra del Fuego from the small Scotia Plate . The Andes range has many active volcanoes distributed in four volcanic zones separated by areas of inactivity. The Andean volcanism
910-498: Is famous for its intricately designed and crafted silver filigree jewellery. Aco and Quilcas specialise in ceramics and San Agustin de Cajas in hats of sheep wool. Mito has the tradition of making wooden masks, and Viques has artisans who specialise in colorful belts and blankets. The twin towns of Cochas Grande and Cochas Chico are famous for their intricate carvings on gourds , which are imported from other regions of Peru. These buriladores or carvers practice burilado ,
980-471: Is natural, or the result of clearing which began during the Incan period. Regardless, in modern times , the clearance has accelerated, and the trees are now considered highly endangered , with some believing that as little as 10% of the original woodland remains. The Andes are rich in fauna: With almost 1,000 species, of which roughly 2/3 are endemic to the region, the Andes are the most important region in
1050-622: Is that it derives from the Quechua word anti "east" as in Antisuyu (Quechua for "east region"), one of the four regions of the Inca Empire . The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word cordel "rope" and is used as a descriptive name for several contiguous sections of the Andes, as well as the entire Andean range, and the combined mountain chain along the western part of
1120-1647: Is the largest city of all Andean countries. It is the seat of the Andean Community of Nations . La Paz , Bolivia 's seat of government, is the highest capital city in the world, at an elevation of approximately 3,650 m (11,975 ft). Parts of the La Paz conurbation, including the city of El Alto , extend up to 4,200 m (13,780 ft). Other cities in or near the Andes include Bariloche , Catamarca , Jujuy , Mendoza , Salta , San Juan , Tucumán , and Ushuaia in Argentina; Calama and Rancagua in Chile; Cochabamba , Oruro , Potosí , Sucre , Tarija , and Yacuiba in Bolivia; Arequipa , Cajamarca , Cusco , Huancayo , Huánuco , Huaraz , Juliaca , and Puno in Peru; Ambato , Cuenca , Ibarra , Latacunga , Loja , Riobamba , and Tulcán in Ecuador; Armenia , Cúcuta , Bucaramanga , Duitama , Ibagué , Ipiales , Manizales , Palmira , Pasto , Pereira , Popayán , Sogamoso , Tunja , and Villavicencio in Colombia; and Barquisimeto , La Grita , Mérida , San Cristóbal , Tovar, Trujillo , and Valera in Venezuela. The cities of Caracas , Valencia , and Maracay are in
1190-404: The Andean cock-of-the-rock , while mixed-species flocks dominated by tanagers and furnariids are commonly seen—in contrast to several vocal but typically- cryptic species of wrens , tapaculos , and antpittas . A number of species such as the royal cinclodes and white-browed tit-spinetail are associated with Polylepis , and consequently also threatened . The Andes Mountains form
1260-721: The Asia-Pacific region. The Andes are the result of tectonic plate processes extending during the Mesozoic and Tertiary eras, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American Plate as the Nazca Plate and South American Plate converge. These processes were accelerated by the effects of climate. As the uplift of the Andes created a rain shadow on the western fringes of Chile, ocean currents and prevailing winds carried moisture away from
1330-762: The Orinoco Basin , the Amazon Basin , the Madre de Dios Basin, and the Gran Chaco , that separate the Andes from the ancient cratons in eastern South America. In the south, the Andes share a long boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane . To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean , although the Peru-Chile trench can be considered their ultimate western limit. From a geographical approach,
1400-582: The Venezuelan Coastal Range , which is a debatable extension of the Andes at the northern extremity of South America. Cities and large towns are connected with asphalt -paved roads, while smaller towns are often connected by dirt roads, which may require a four-wheel-drive vehicle. The rough terrain has historically put the costs of building highways and railroads that cross the Andes out of reach of most neighboring countries, even with modern civil engineering practices. For example,
1470-729: The War of the Pacific between Chile and the allied Bolivia and Peru, in a diplomatic deal to keep Peru out of the war. The Chilean Army and Chilean Navy defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru, and Chile took over Bolivia's only province on the Pacific Coast, some land from Peru that was returned to Peru decades later. Bolivia has been completely landlocked ever since. It mostly uses seaports in eastern Argentina and Uruguay for international trade because its diplomatic relations with Chile have been suspended since 1978. Because of
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#17327728009211540-483: The rodent order, inhabit the Andes' alpine regions. The Andean condor , the largest bird of its kind in the Western Hemisphere , occurs throughout much of the Andes but generally in very low densities. Other animals found in the relatively open habitats of the high Andes include the huemul , cougar , foxes in the genus Pseudalopex , and, for birds, certain species of tinamous (notably members of
1610-467: The "guerrero" or soldier, who courts a mermaid in Laguna de Paca , a lake in the valley largely isolated, and courts the mermaid each night; she moans and cries for him to join her, then she disappears beneath the surface. One night, she disappears into the water, and the soldier jumps in after her. He looks under the water for the mermaid, but runs out of air and gives up. His body is lost, but now appears as
1680-748: The Andean orogeny caused the Magallanes Basin to evolve from being an extensional back-arc basin in the Mesozoic to being a compressional foreland basin in the Cenozoic . Tectonic forces above the subduction zone along the entire west coast of South America where the Nazca Plate and a part of the Antarctic Plate are sliding beneath the South American Plate continue to produce an ongoing orogenic event resulting in minor to major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions to this day. Many high-magnitude earthquakes have been recorded in
1750-469: The Andean peoples are those of the Quechua and Aymara language families. Woodbine Parish and Joseph Barclay Pentland surveyed a large part of the Bolivian Andes from 1826 to 1827. In modern times, the largest cities in the Andes are Bogotá , with a metropolitan population of over ten million, and Santiago , Medellín , Cali , and Quito . Lima is a coastal city adjacent to the Andes and
1820-405: The Andes are tobacco and potatoes . The high-altitude Polylepis forests and woodlands are found in the Andean areas of Colombia , Ecuador , Peru , Bolivia , and Chile . These trees, by locals referred to as Queñua, Yagual, and other names, can be found at altitudes of 4,500 m (14,760 ft) above sea level. It remains unclear if the patchy distribution of these forests and woodlands
1890-491: The Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and less-rugged topography. The Andes also contain large quantities of iron ore located in many mountains within the range. The Andean orogen has a series of bends or oroclines . The Bolivian Orocline is a seaward-concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S. At this point,
1960-462: The Andes such as the Incas have practiced irrigation techniques for over 6,000 years. Because of the mountain slopes, terracing has been a common practice. Terracing, however, was only extensively employed after Incan imperial expansions to fuel their expanding realm. The potato holds a very important role as an internally-consumed staple crop. Maize was also an important crop for these people, and
2030-526: The Andes varies greatly depending on latitude, altitude, and proximity to the sea. Temperature, atmospheric pressure, and humidity decrease in higher elevations. The southern section is rainy and cool, while the central section is dry. The northern Andes are typically rainy and warm, with an average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) in Colombia . The climate is known to change drastically in rather short distances. Rainforests exist just kilometers away from
2100-615: The Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m (22,615 ft). The Andes are also part of the American Cordillera , a chain of mountain ranges ( cordillera ) that consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western "backbone" of the Americas and Antarctica . The etymology of the word Andes has been debated. The majority consensus
2170-479: The Chilean coast. This caused some areas of the subduction zone to be sediment-starved, causing excess friction and an increased rate of compressed coastal uplift. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the western rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate and the Antarctic Plate . To the east, the Andes range is bounded by several sedimentary basins , such as
Mantaro Valley - Misplaced Pages Continue
2240-502: The Inca Empire. The Incas placed great emphasis on storing agricultural products and other goods and the Mantaro Valley has more qullqas than any other region of Peru. Half of the 2,573 qullqas were placed in the center of this maize and potato producing area and the other half were scattered among 48 compounds along the course of the river. In total, the qullqas of the Mantaro Valley had a storage area of 170,000 cubic meters, possibly
2310-491: The Incas were defeated in 1532 by an alliance composed of tens of thousands of allies from nations they had subjugated (e.g. Huancas , Chachapoyas , Cañaris ) and a small army of 180 Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro . One of the few Inca sites the Spanish never found in their conquest was Machu Picchu , which lay hidden on a peak on the eastern edge of the Andes where they descend to the Amazon. The main surviving languages of
2380-492: The Mantaro River, and some estimates suggest that within 10 years there will be no ice left on the mountain. There are numerous small towns in the valley, several of them famous for their own particular crafts. The town of Hualhuas is known for its tapestries, blankets and sweaters, and where it is possible to see the craftspeople working at their weaving looms. Molinos is noted for woodcarving. San Jeronimo de Tunan
2450-582: The North and South American continents. The Andes can be divided into three sections: At the northern end of the Andes, the separate Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is often, but not always, treated as part of the Northern Andes. The Leeward Antilles islands Aruba , Bonaire , and Curaçao , which lie in the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Venezuela, were formerly thought to represent
2520-479: The Spanish during their conquest of Peru. Eventually the Spanish, in their quest to suppress paganism, got tired of their allies, and destroyed an important temple of the Huanca – Wariwillka (A temple constructed some 1000 years ago near the city of Huancayo) Archaeologists have focused on the 2,573 Inca qullqas (storage silos, or colcas ) in the Mantaro Valley which was one of the largest and most fertile areas of
2590-734: The ancient cratons of eastern South America, by then the South American part of Gondwana . The formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the Triassic , when Pangaea began the breakup that resulted in developing several rifts . The development continued through the Jurassic Period. It was during the Cretaceous Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting , faulting , and folding of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of
2660-539: The ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant, as different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and erosion . Across the 1,000-kilometer-wide (620 mi) Drake Passage lie the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula south of the Scotia Plate , which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain. The far east regions of the Andes experience
2730-479: The area is Huaytapallana , 14 miles northeast of Huancayo, which has an elevation of 5,567 metres (18,264 ft). The broad Mantaro valley is unusual in the Andes as it possesses a large amount of arable land . Thus, dating back to Pre-Columbian times, it has been a breadbasket for the people of the Andes. The valley contains about 65,000 hectares (160,000 acres) of arable land ranging in elevation from 3,150 metres (10,330 ft) to 4,200 metres (13,800 ft),
2800-687: The coastline bends is known as the Arica Elbow. Further south lies the Maipo Orocline, a more subtle orocline between 30° S and 38°S with a seaward-concave break in the trend at 33° S. Near the southern tip of the Andes lies the Patagonian Orocline. The western rim of the South American Plate has been the place of several pre-Andean orogenies since at least the late Proterozoic and early Paleozoic , when several terranes and microcontinents collided and amalgamated with
2870-399: The dry climate that reduced the disturbing actions of meteoric water . The dry climate in the central western Andes has also led to the creation of extensive saltpeter deposits which were extensively mined until the invention of synthetic nitrates . Yet another result of the dry climate are the salars of Atacama and Uyuni , the former being the largest source of lithium and the latter
Mantaro Valley - Misplaced Pages Continue
2940-532: The dry season (winter) possible and allows the cultivation of frost-resistant vegetable crops like onion and carrot . The Andes rose to fame for their mineral wealth during the Spanish conquest of South America . Although Andean Amerindian peoples crafted ceremonial jewelry of gold and other metals, the mineralizations of the Andes were first mined on a large scale after the Spanish arrival. Potosí in present-day Bolivia and Cerro de Pasco in Peru were among
3010-501: The establishment of the century-long Inca Empire . This all changed in the 16th century, when the Spanish conquistadors colonized the mountains in advance of the mining economy. In the tide of anti-imperialist nationalism, the Andes became the scene of a series of independence wars in the 19th century, when rebel forces swept through the region to overthrow Spanish colonial rule. Since then, many former Spanish territories have become five independent Andean states. The climate in
3080-423: The extreme in the slopes near the virtually-lifeless Atacama Desert. About 30,000 species of vascular plants live in the Andes, with roughly half being endemic to the region, surpassing the diversity of any other hotspot . The small tree Cinchona pubescens , a source of quinine which is used to treat malaria , is found widely in the Andes as far south as Bolivia. Other important crops that originated from
3150-552: The festivals described above are achieved. A changing climate is now observed by local people. They note that, in the last five years, the "rainy season" increasingly starts in September and October, shortening significantly the drier seasons. Treasured landmarks such as the Nevado Huaytapallana, when compared to 30 years ago, have much less glacial ice during the peak dry season. This is a crucial water source feeding
3220-464: The forelands of the Atacama Desert , some of the largest porphyry copper mineralizations occur, making Chile and Peru the first- and second-largest exporters of copper in the world. Porphyry copper in the western slopes of the Andes has been generated by hydrothermal fluids (mostly water) during the cooling of plutons or volcanic systems. The porphyry mineralization further benefited from
3290-555: The genus Nothoprocta ), Andean goose , giant coot , flamingos (mainly associated with hypersaline lakes), lesser rhea , Andean flicker , diademed sandpiper-plover , miners , sierra-finches and diuca-finches . Lake Titicaca hosts several endemics, among them the highly endangered Titicaca flightless grebe and Titicaca water frog . A few species of hummingbirds , notably some hillstars , can be seen at altitudes above 4,000 m (13,100 ft), but far higher diversities can be found at lower altitudes, especially in
3360-512: The glaciers were over ten times longer. On the east side of this section of the Mendozina Andes, they flowed down to 2,060 m (6,759 ft) and on the west side to about 1,220 m (4,003 ft) above sea level. The massifs of Aconcagua (6,961 m (22,838 ft)), Tupungato (6,550 m (21,490 ft)), and Nevado Juncal (6,110 m (20,046 ft)) are tens of kilometres away from each other and were connected by
3430-471: The highest elevation at which cultivation is possible in this area. It was inhabited by the Wanka (Huanca) people – a self-governing nation with a reputation for producing strong warriors and whose spiritual practices placed an emphasis on remembering their ancestors' role in the mystique of the Mantaro Valley. In some cases, descendants actually form part of the valley. One legend in particular includes that of
3500-595: The highest mountain range which is outside of Asia . The range's highest peak, Argentina's Aconcagua , rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m (22,838 ft) above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorian Andes is farther from the Earth's center than any other location on the Earth's surface, due to the equatorial bulge resulting from the Earth's rotation . The world's highest volcanoes are in
3570-556: The humid Andean forests (" cloud forests ") growing on slopes in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and far northwestern Argentina. These forest-types, which includes the Yungas and parts of the Chocó, are very rich in flora and fauna, although few large mammals exist, exceptions being the threatened mountain tapir , spectacled bear , and yellow-tailed woolly monkey . Birds of humid Andean forests include mountain toucans , quetzals , and
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#17327728009213640-517: The hyperarid Atacama Desert . Rainforests and tropical dry forests used to encircle much of the northern Andes but are now greatly diminished , especially in the Chocó and inter-Andean valleys of Colombia. Opposite the humid Andean slopes are the relatively dry Andean slopes in most of western Peru, Chile, and Argentina. Along with several Interandean Valles , they are typically dominated by deciduous woodland, shrub and xeric vegetation, reaching
3710-667: The larger glaciers descend to sea level. The Andes of Chile and Argentina can be divided into two climatic and glaciological zones: the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes . Since the Dry Andes extend from the latitudes of the Atacama Desert to the area of the Maule River , precipitation is more sporadic, and there are strong temperature oscillations. The line of equilibrium may shift drastically over short periods of time, leaving
3780-523: The largest storage facilities in the Inca Empire and in pre-Columbian America. Illustrating the quantity of stored items, these qullqas supplied and equipped an army of 35,000 soldiers during the Spanish conquest of the 1530s. In the 18th and early 19th century, the Convent of Santa Rosa de Ocopa was the headquarters of a far-flung missionary enterprise of the Franciscans who established missions in
3850-553: The location of several high plateaus —some of which host major cities such as Quito , Bogotá , Cali , Arequipa , Medellín , Bucaramanga , Sucre , Mérida , El Alto , and La Paz . The Altiplano Plateau is the world's second highest after the Tibetan Plateau . These ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate: the Tropical Andes , the Dry Andes , and the Wet Andes . The Andes are
3920-523: The main crossover of the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the Paso Internacional Los Libertadores . Only recently have the ends of some highways that came rather close to one another from the east and the west been connected. Much of the transportation of passengers is done via aircraft. However, there is one railroad that connects Chile with Peru via the Andes, and there are others that make
3990-576: The nearly-7,000-metre (22,966 ft) highest mountains of the Andes. This dry steppe climate is considered to be typical of the subtropical position at 32–34° S. The valley bottoms have no woods, just dwarf scrub. The largest glaciers, for example the Plomo Glacier and the Horcones Glaciers, do not even reach 10 km (6.2 mi) in length and have only insignificant ice thickness. At glacial times, however, c. 20,000 years ago,
4060-660: The orientation of the Andes turns from northwest in Peru to south in Chile and Argentina . The Andean segments north and south of the Orocline have been rotated 15° counter-clockwise to 20° clockwise respectively. The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of the maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau , and according to Isacks (1988) the Orocline is related to crustal shortening . The specific point at 18° S where
4130-463: The rain forests of the Amazon Basin with the objective of converting the indigenous people to Christianity. The weather is divided into three distinct seasons – the rainy season from November to April, winter from May to July and the dry sunny season, with strong winds from August to October. To the average citizen, both the landscape and the weather play a crucial role for health and prosperity, and abundance from year to year determines how intricate
4200-402: The rainy season (summer), part of the rangeland is used for cropping (mainly potatoes, barley, broad beans, and wheat). Irrigation is helpful in advancing the sowing data of the summer crops, which guarantees an early yield in periods of food shortage. Also, by early sowing, maize can be cultivated higher up in the mountains (up to 3,800 m (12,500 ft)). In addition, it makes cropping in
4270-424: The region, such as the 2010 Maule earthquake (M8.8), the 2015 Illapel earthquake (M8.2), and the 1960 Valdivia earthquake (M9.5), which as of 2024 was the strongest ever recorded on seismometers. The amount, magnitude, and type of seismic activity varies greatly along the subduction zone. These differences are due to a wide range of factors, including friction between the plates, angle of subduction, buoyancy of
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#17327728009214340-460: The same connection via southern Bolivia. There are multiple highways in Bolivia that cross the Andes. Some of these were built during a period of war between Bolivia and Paraguay , in order to transport Bolivian troops and their supplies to the war front in the lowlands of southeastern Bolivia and western Paraguay. For decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes. However, these claims were given up in about 1870 during
4410-669: The snow-covered peak of Cotopaxi . The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The snow line depends on the location. It is between 4,500 and 4,800 m (14,764 and 15,748 ft) in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, rising to 4,800–5,200 m (15,748–17,060 ft) in the drier mountains of southern Peru and northern Chile south to about 30°S before descending to 4,500 m (14,760 ft) on Aconcagua at 32°S , 2,000 m (6,600 ft) at 40°S , 500 m (1,640 ft) at 50°S , and only 300 m (980 ft) in Tierra del Fuego at 55°S ; from 50°S, several of
4480-526: The subducting plate, rate of subduction, and hydration value of the mantle material. The highest rate of seismic activity is observed in the central portion of the boundary, between 33°S and 35°S. In this area, the angle of subduction is very low, meaning the subducting plate is nearly horizontal. Studies of mantle hydration across the subduction zone have shown a correlation between increased material hydration and lower-magnitude, more-frequent seismic activity. Zones exhibiting dehydration instead are thought to have
4550-414: The submerged peaks of the extreme northern edge of the Andes range, but ongoing geological studies indicate that such a simplification does not do justice to the complex tectonic boundary between the South American and Caribbean plates . The Andes are an orogenic belt of mountains along the Pacific Ring of Fire , a zone of volcanic activity that encompasses the Pacific rim of the Americas as well as
4620-452: The tortuous terrain in places, villages and towns in the mountains—to which travel via motorized vehicles is of little use—are still located in the high Andes of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador . Locally, the relatives of the camel , the llama , and the alpaca continue to carry out important uses as pack animals, but this use has generally diminished in modern times. Donkeys , mules , and horses are also useful. The ancient peoples of
4690-734: The valley is the city of Jauja , an important pre-Columbian city and Peru's provisional capital in 1534. Huancayo is the largest city in the valley. The Mantaro Valley is a north–south trending valley about 60 kilometres (37 mi) long between the cities of Jauja and Huancayo , Peru. The Mantaro River bisects the valley, emerging from a steep gorge at the northern end of the valley and entering another steep gorge at its southern end. The valley floor averages about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) wide at elevations ranging from 3,150 metres (10,330 ft) to 3,500 metres (11,500 ft). The land on either side rises to mountain ranges of more than 4,500 metres (14,800 ft) elevation. The highest mountain in
4760-586: The world for amphibians . The diversity of animals in the Andes is high, with almost 600 species of mammals (13% endemic), more than 1,700 species of birds (about 1/3 endemic), more than 600 species of reptiles (about 45% endemic), and almost 400 species of fish (about 1/3 endemic). The vicuña and guanaco can be found living in the Altiplano , while the closely related domesticated llama and alpaca are widely kept by locals as pack animals and for their meat and wool . The crepuscular (active during dawn and dusk) chinchillas , two threatened members of
4830-414: The world's largest reserve of the element. Early Mesozoic and Neogene plutonism in Bolivia's Cordillera Central created the Bolivian tin belt as well as the famous, now-mostly-depleted, deposits of Cerro Rico de Potosí . The Andes Mountains, initially inhabited by hunter-gatherers , experienced the development of agriculture and the rise of politically centralized civilizations , which culminated in
4900-408: Was used for the production of chicha , important to Andean native people. Currently, tobacco , cotton , and coffee are the main export crops. Coca , despite eradication programs in some countries, remains an important crop for legal local use in a mildly stimulating herbal tea , and illegally for the production of cocaine . In unirrigated land, pasture is the most common type of land use. In
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