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60-604: The Mapungubwe archaeological site (pronounced mah- POON -goob-weh ) is located at the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo Rivers , on the borders of Zimbabwe and Botswana in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. At this site, the development of complex Iron Age societies started with the Schroda site, a Zhizo/Leokwe community, around AD 900 to AD 1000. Subsequent regional economic and socio-political shifts led to

120-591: A different impact on the ecosystems of the delta from today, as it brought nutrient-rich fresh water down to the Indian Ocean coastal wetlands. The lower Zambezi experienced a small flood surge early in the dry season as rain in the Gwembe catchment and north-eastern Zimbabwe rushed through while rain in the upper Zambezi, Kafue, and Lake Malawi basins, and Luangwa to a lesser extent, is held back by swamps and floodplains. The discharges of these systems contribute to

180-416: A haven for migratory waterbirds, including pintails , garganey , African openbill ( Anastomus lamelligerus ), saddle-billed stork ( Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis ), wattled crane ( Bugeranus carunculatus ), and great white pelican ( Pelecanus onocrotalus ). Reptiles include Nile crocodile ( Crocodylus niloticus ), Nile monitor lizard ( Varanus niloticus ), African rock python ( Python sebae ),

240-469: A much larger flood in March or April, with a mean monthly maximum for April of 6,700 m (240,000 cu ft) per second at the delta. The record flood was more than three times as big, 22,500 m (790,000 cu ft) per second being recorded in 1958. By contrast, the discharge at the end of the dry season averaged just 500 m (18,000 cu ft) per second. In the 1960s and 1970s,

300-679: A number of irrigation schemes including Sibasa and Shashi . More than two million years ago , the Upper Zambezi River used to flow south through what is now the Makgadikgadi Pan (presently a vast seasonal wetland) to the Shashe River and thence the Limpopo River . There is a road bridge and a rail bridge south of Francistown . The lower Shashe River forms the border between Botswana and Zimbabwe and

360-549: A reputation as great cloth traders throughout the region. In a curious note, Goese-born Portuguese trader Manuel Caetano Pereira, who traveled to the Bisa homelands in 1796, was surprised to be shown a second, separate river referred to as the "Zambezi". This "other Zambezi" that puzzled Pereira is most likely what modern sources spell the Chambeshi River in northern Zambia. The Monomatapa notion (reported by Santos) that

420-557: Is a highly ephemeral river, with flow generally restricted to a few days of the year. The river contributes 12.2% of the mean annual runoff of the Limpopo Basin. Major tributaries of the Shashe River include the Simukwe , Shashani , Thuli , Tati and Ramokgwebana rivers. The lower Shashe is a sand filled channel, with extensive alluvial aquifers in the river channel and below the alluvial plains. These supply water for

480-534: Is joined by sizeable tributaries such as the Luena and the Chifumage flowing from highlands to the north-west. It turns south and develops a floodplain , with extreme width variation between the dry and rainy seasons. It enters dense evergreen Cryptosepalum dry forest , though on its western side, Western Zambezian grasslands also occur. Where it re-enters Zambia, it is nearly 400 m (1,300 ft) wide in

540-766: Is loaned to the Mapungubwe Interpretation Center at Mapungubwe National Park. Shashe River The Shashe River (or Shashi River ) is a major left-bank tributary of the Limpopo River in Zimbabwe . It rises northwest of Francistown , Botswana and flows into the Limpopo River where Botswana, Zimbabwe and South Africa meet. The confluence is at the site of the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area . The Shashe

600-473: Is lost through evaporation in its swamp systems. The 1940s and 1950s were particularly wet decades in the basin. Since 1975, it has been drier, the average discharge being only 70% of that for the years 1930 to 1958. Up to the Late Pliocene or Pleistocene (more than two million years ago), the upper Zambezi flowed south through what is now the Makgadikgadi Pan to the Limpopo River . The change of

660-518: Is not included in the figures because it only occasionally overflows to any extent into the Zambezi. Because of the rainfall distribution, northern tributaries contribute much more water than southern ones; for example: The Northern Highlands catchment of the upper Zambezi contributes 25%, Kafue 8%, Luangwa and Shire Rivers 16% each, total 65% of Zambezi discharge. The large Cuando basin in the south-west, though, contributes only about 2 m /s because most

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720-521: Is obstructed by a sand bar . A more northerly branch, called the Chinde mouth, has a minimum depth at low water of 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) at the entrance and 4 metres (13 ft) further in, and is the branch used for navigation. About 100 kilometres (62 mi) further north is a river called the Quelimane , after the town at its mouth. This stream, which is silting up, receives the overflow of

780-481: Is sandy, and the banks are low and reed-fringed. At places, however, and especially in the rainy season, the streams unite into one broad, fast-flowing river. About 160 kilometres (99 mi) from the sea, the Zambezi receives the drainage of Lake Malawi through the Shire River . On approaching the Indian Ocean, the river splits up into a delta . Each of the primary distributaries, Kongone, Luabo, and Timbwe,

840-618: Is the fourth-longest river in Africa, the longest east-flowing river in Africa and the largest flowing into the Indian Ocean from Africa. Its drainage basin covers 1,390,000 km (540,000 sq mi), slightly less than half of the Nile 's. The 2,574 km (1,599 mi) river rises in Zambia and flows through eastern Angola , along the north-eastern border of Namibia and

900-698: Is unbridged. However, at Tuli , both sides of the river are in Zimbabwe and there are two legal crossing points. The Shashi runs through the Shashi Irrigation Scheme and the Tuli Block . The Shashe River is dammed near Francistown at Shashe Dam . The original purpose was to supply water to the industrial city of Selebi-Phikwe . In 1982 it was found that groundwater from the local wells in Francistown had high levels of nitrate, and

960-546: Is very uniform, dropping only by another 180 m (590 ft) across a distance of around 800 km (500 mi). The first of its large tributaries to enter the Zambezi is the Kabompo River in the North-Western Province of Zambia. The savanna through which the river flows gives way to a wide floodplain, studded with Borassus fan palms . A little farther south is the confluence with

1020-749: The Gaborone Dam , has capacity of 141,000,000 cubic metres (5.0 × 10  cu ft). A pipeline from the Dikgatlhong Dam will connect to the North-South Carrier (NSC) pipeline at the BPT1 break pressure tank at Moralane . The NSC will take the water south to Gaborone . Citations Sources Zambezi river#Geological changes to the course of the Zambezi (Period: 1971–2000)4,256.1 m /s (150,300 cu ft/s) The Zambezi (also spelled Zambeze and Zambesi )

1080-545: The Ikelenge District of North-Western Province , Zambia, at about 1,524 metres (5,000 ft) above sea level . The area around the source is a national monument, forest reserve, and important bird area . Eastward of the source, the watershed between the Congo and Zambezi Basins is a well-marked belt of high ground, running nearly east–west and falling abruptly to the north and south. This distinctly cuts off

1140-736: The Itezhi-Tezhi Dam 's deleterious effects on the Kafue Flats, this has these effects: The Zambezi Delta has extensive seasonally and permanently flooded grasslands, savannas, and swamp forests. Together with the floodplains of the Buzi , Pungwe , and Save Rivers, the Zambezi's floodplains make up the World Wildlife Fund 's Zambezian coastal flooded savanna ecoregion in Mozambique. The flooded savannas lie close to

1200-579: The Kuomboka . After Lealui, the river turns south-southeast. From the east, it continues to receive numerous small streams, but on the west, it is without major tributaries for 240 km. Before this, the Ngonye Falls and subsequent rapids interrupt navigation. South of Ngonye Falls, the river briefly borders Namibia's Caprivi Strip . Below the junction of the Cuando River and the Zambezi,

1260-610: The Lungwebungu River . This is the beginning of the Barotse Floodplain , the most notable feature of the upper Zambezi, but this northern part does not flood so much and includes islands of higher land in the middle. About 30 km below the confluence of the Lungwebungu, the country becomes very flat, and the typical Barotse Floodplain landscape unfolds, with the flood reaching a width of 25 km in

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1320-528: The Quelimane or Quá-Qua, a small river on the northern end of the delta, which at that time was connected by navigable channels to the Zambezi River proper (the connection silted up by the 1830s). In a few of the oldest maps, the entire river is denoted as such. By the 16th century, a new name emerged, the Cuama River (sometimes "Quama" or "Zuama"). Cuama was the local name given by the dwellers of

1380-679: The Swahili coast for an outpost located on one of the southerly islands of the delta (near the Luabo channel). Most old nautical maps denote the Luabo entry as Cuama, the entire delta as the "rivers of Cuama", and the Zambezi proper as the "Cuama River". In 1552, Portuguese chronicler João de Barros noted that the same Cuama River was called Zembere by the inland people of Monomatapa . The Portuguese Dominican friar João dos Santos , visiting Monomatapa in 1597 reported it as Zambeze (Bantu languages frequently shifts between z and r) and inquired into

1440-515: The "Espirito Santo" Rivers converging deep in the interior, at the same lake. However, the Bisa-derived etymology is not without dispute. In 1845, W.D. Cooley, examining Pereira's notes, concluded the term "Zambezi" derives not from the Bisa people, but rather from the Bantu term "mbege"/"mbeze" ("fish"), and consequently it probably means merely "river of fish". David Livingstone , who reached

1500-506: The Batoka Gorge, the current being continually interrupted by reefs. It has been described as one of the world's most spectacular whitewater trips, a tremendous challenge for kayakers and rafters alike. Beyond the gorge are a succession of rapids that end 240 km (150 mi) below Victoria Falls. Over this distance, the river drops 250 m (820 ft). At this point, the river enters Lake Kariba , created in 1959 following

1560-455: The Indian Ocean coast. Mangroves fringe the delta's shoreline. Although the dams have stemmed some of the annual flooding of the lower Zambezi and caused the area of floodplain to be greatly reduced, they have not removed flooding completely. They cannot control extreme floods, and they have only made medium-level floods less frequent. When heavy rain in the lower Zambezi combines with significant runoff upstream, massive floods still happen, and

1620-538: The Indian Ocean is navigable, although the river is shallow in many places during the dry season. This shallowness arises as the river enters a broad valley and spreads out over a large area. Only at one point, the Lupata Gorge , 320 kilometres (200 mi) from its mouth, is the river confined between high hills. Here, it is scarcely 200 metres (660 ft) wide. Elsewhere it is from 5 to 8 kilometres (3 to 5 mi) wide, flowing gently in many streams. The river bed

1680-592: The Swahili (and later Portuguese) upriver trade station at Sena . In 1752, the Zambezi Delta, under the name "Rivers of Sena" ( Rios de Sena ) formed a colonial administrative district of Portuguese Mozambique , but common usage of "Zambezi" led eventually to a royal decree in 1858 officially renaming the district " Zambézia ". The Zambezi region was known to medieval geographers as the Empire of Monomotapa , and

1740-471: The Zambezi in the rainy season. Average, minimum and maximum discharge of the Zambezi River at Marromeu (Lower Zambezi). Period from 1998 to 2022. The delta of the Zambezi is today about half as broad as it was before the construction of the Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams controlled the seasonal variations in the flow rate of the river. Before the dams were built, seasonal flooding of the Zambezi had quite

1800-543: The Zambezi was sourced from a great internal lake might be a reference to one of the African Great Lakes . One of the names reported by early explorers for Lake Malawi was "Lake Zambre" (probably a corruption of "Zambezi"), possibly because Lake Malawi is connected to the lower Zambezi via the Shire River. The Monomatapa story resonated with the old European notion, drawn from classical antiquity, that all

1860-536: The basin of the Lualaba (the main branch of the upper Congo) from the Zambezi. In the neighborhood of the source, the watershed is not as clearly defined, but the two river systems do not connect. The region drained by the Zambezi is a vast, broken-edged plateau 900–1,200 m high, composed in the remote interior of metamorphic beds and fringed with the igneous rocks of the Victoria Falls. At Chupanga , on

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1920-406: The building of dams changed that pattern completely. Downstream, the mean monthly minimum–maximum was 500 to 6,000 m (18,000 to 212,000 cu ft) per second; now it is 1,000 to 3,900 m (35,000 to 138,000 cu ft) per second. Medium-level floods especially, of the kind to which the ecology of the lower Zambezi was adapted, happen less often and have a shorter duration. As with

1980-445: The calm stretches of the river, as well as Nile crocodiles. Monitor lizards are found in many places. Birds are abundant, with species including heron , pelican , egret , lesser flamingo , and African fish eagle present in large numbers. Riverine woodland also supports many large animals, such as buffalo, zebras , giraffes , and elephants . The Zambezi also supports several hundred species of fish, some of which are endemic to

2040-468: The completion of the Kariba Dam . The lake is one of the largest man-made lakes in the world, and the hydroelectric power-generating facilities at the dam provide electricity to much of Zambia and Zimbabwe. The Luangwa and Kafue rivers are the two largest left-hand tributaries of the Zambezi. The Kafue joins the main river in a quiet, deep stream about 180 m (590 ft) wide. From this point,

2100-725: The confluence with the Luanginga is Lealui , one of the capitals of the Lozi people , who populate the Zambian region of Barotseland in the Western Province. The chief of the Lozi maintains one of his two compounds at Lealui; the other is at Limulunga , which is on high ground and serves as the capital during the rainy season. The annual move from Lealui to Limulunga is a major event, celebrated as one of Zambia's best-known festivals,

2160-621: The declaration of Mapungubwe by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, a suspension was placed on all excavations at Mapungubwe, a decision which is still in place as of 2016. The Mapungubwe Collection is on public display at both the University of Pretoria Museums as well as the Mapungubwe Gold Collection new Javett-UP Arts Centre which opened its doors on 24 September 2019. Part of the Mapungubwe Collection

2220-501: The early 1890s by explorer François Lotrie. Local knowledge of Mapungubwe has also been recorded from oral histories, thus supporting ethnographic and historical evidence about the awareness of Mapungubwe as a sacred hill. Evidence suggests that Mapungubwe therefore cannot be regarded as belonging to any single individual, but is rather symbolically associated with various groups of people. The combination of archaeological research, historical records and oral traditions does nonetheless expand

2280-442: The endemic Pungwe worm snake ( Leptotyphlops pungwensis ), and three other snakes that are nearly endemic - floodplain water snake ( Lycodonomorphus whytei obscuriventris ), dwarf wolf snake ( Lycophidion nanus ), and swamp viper ( Proatheris ). Several butterfly species are endemic. The north of the Zambezi basin has mean annual rainfall of 1100 to 1400 mm, which declines towards the south, reaching about half that figure in

2340-501: The establishment of the K2 settlement (AD 1030–AD 1220). The emergence of a ruling class during this period marked the beginning of the first southern African state at Mapungubwe Hill (AD 1220–AD 1290). These sites together constitute the core of a World Heritage Site , recognised for its natural and cultural landscape deemed to possess great value. The site's initial attribution to the van Graan family in 1932 follows its earlier discovery in

2400-751: The great African rivers—the Nile, the Senegal , the Congo, and the Zambezi—were all sourced from the same great internal lake. The Portuguese were also told that the Mozambican Espirito Santo "river" (actually an estuary formed by the Umbeluzi , Matola , and Tembe Rivers) was sourced from a lake (hence its outlet became known as Delagoa Bay ). As a result, several old maps depict the Zambezi and

2460-440: The lower Zambezi, thin strata of grey and yellow sandstones , with an occasional band of limestone , crop out on the bed of the river in the dry season, and these persist beyond Tete , where they are associated with extensive seams of coal. Coal is also found in the district just below Victoria Falls. Gold-bearing rocks occur in several places. The river flows to the southwest into Angola for about 240 km (150 mi), then

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2520-459: The native idea of this magnificent stream being the main drain of the country". Other historical records show that the river was called Kasambabezi by the Tonga people, which means “only those who know the river can bath in it.” a name which is still in use to this day. In Portuguese records, the "Cuama River" term disappeared and gave way to the term "Sena River" ( Rio de Sena ), a reference to

2580-473: The northern border of Botswana , then along the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe to Mozambique , where it crosses the country to empty into the Indian Ocean. The Zambezi's most noted feature is Victoria Falls . Its other falls include the Chavuma Falls at the border between Zambia and Angola, and Ngonye Falls near Sioma in western Zambia. The two main sources of hydroelectric power on

2640-547: The northward bend of the Zambezi is checked, and the stream continues due east. At the confluence of the Luangwa (15°37' S), it enters Mozambique. The middle Zambezi ends where the river enters Lake Cahora Bassa , formerly the site of dangerous rapids known as Kebrabassa; the lake was created in 1974 by the construction of the Cahora Bassa Dam. The lower Zambezi's 650 kilometres (400 mi) from Cahora Bassa to

2700-576: The origins of the name; he was told it was named after a people. "The River Cuama is by them called Zambeze; the head whereof is so farre within Land that none of them know it, but by tradition of their Progenitors say it comes from a Lake in the midst of the continent which yeelds also other great Rivers, divers ways visiting the Sea. They call it Zambeze, of a Nation of Cafres dwelling neere that Lake which are so called." —J. Santos Ethiopia Oriental , 1609 Thus,

2760-468: The rainy season and flows rapidly, with rapids ending in the Chavuma Falls , where the river flows through a rocky fissure. The river drops about 400 m (1,300 ft) in elevation from its source at 1,500 m (4,900 ft) to the Chavuma Falls at 1,100 m (3,600 ft), over a distance of about 400 km (250 mi). From this point to the Victoria Falls, the level of the basin

2820-549: The rainy season. For more than 200 km downstream, the annual flood cycle dominates the natural environment and human life, society, and culture. About 80 km further down, the Luanginga , which with its tributaries drains a large area to the west, joins the Zambezi. A short distance higher up on the east, the main stream is joined in the rainy season by overflow of the Luampa / Luena system. A short distance downstream of

2880-708: The river are the Kariba Dam , which provides power to Zambia and Zimbabwe, and the Cahora Bassa Dam in Mozambique, which provides power to Mozambique and South Africa . Additionally, two smaller power stations are along the Zambezi River in Zambia, one at Victoria Falls and the other in Zengamina , near Kalene Hill in the Ikelenge District . The river rises in a black, marshy dambo in dense, undulating miombo woodland 50 km (31 mi) north of Mwinilunga and 20 km (12 mi) south of Ikelenge in

2940-577: The river bends almost due east. Here, the river is broad and shallow and flows slowly, but as it flows eastward towards the border of the great central plateau of Africa, it reaches a chasm into which the Victoria Falls plunge. The Victoria Falls are considered the boundary between the upper and middle Zambezi. Below them, the river continues to flow due east for about 200 km (120 mi), cutting through perpendicular walls of basalt 20 to 60 m (66 to 197 ft) apart in hills 200 to 250 m (660 to 820 ft) high. The river flows swiftly through

3000-489: The river course is the result of epeirogenic movements that lifted up the surface at the present-day water divide between both rivers. Meanwhile, 1,000 km (620 mi) east, a western tributary of the Shire River in the East African Rift 's southern extension through Malawi eroded a deep valley on its western escarpment. At a slow rate, the middle Zambezi started cutting back the bed of its river towards

3060-743: The river. Important species include cichlids , which are fished heavily for food, as well as catfish, tigerfish, yellowfish , and other large species. The bull shark is sometimes known as the Zambezi shark after the river, not to be mistaken with Glyphis freshwater shark genus that inhabit the river, as well. Upper Zambezi: 507,200 km , discharges 1044 m /s at Victoria Falls, comprising: Middle Zambezi cumulatively 1,050,000 km , 2442 m /s, measured at Cahora Bassa Gorge Lower Zambezi cumulatively, 1,378,000 km , 3424 m /s, measured at Marromeu Total Zambezi river basin : 1,390,000 km , 3424 m /s discharged into delta Source: Beilfuss & Dos Santos (2001) The Okavango Basin

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3120-517: The south-west. The rain falls in a 4-to-6-month summer rainy season when the Intertropical Convergence Zone moves over the basin from the north between October and March. Evaporation rates are high (1600 mm-2300 mm), and much water is lost this way in swamps and floodplains, especially in the south-west of the basin. The river supports large populations of many animals. Hippopotamuses are abundant along most of

3180-514: The term "Zambezi" is after a people who live by a great lake to the north. The most likely candidates are the "M'biza", or Bisa people (in older texts given as Muisa, Movisa, Abisa, Ambios, and other variations), a Bantu people who live in what is now central-eastern Zambia, between the Zambezi River and Lake Bangweolo (at the time, before the Lunda invasion, the Bisa would have likely stretched further north, possibly to Lake Tanganyika ). The Bisa had

3240-460: The understanding of pre-colonial societies and their settlement in and around Mapungubwe over periods of time. The discovery of gold artefacts on Mapungubwe Hill in 1932 served as a catalyst for detailed academic research early in 1933 after the University of Pretoria had secured research rights from the government. Large-scale excavations were undertaken between 1933 and 1940, until research

3300-399: The upper Zambezi in 1853, refers to it as "Zambesi", but also makes note of the local name "Leeambye" used by the Lozi people , which he says means "large river or river par excellence". Livingstone records other names for the Zambezi—Luambeji, Luambesi, Ambezi, Ojimbesi, and Zambesi—applied by different peoples along its course, and asserts they "all possess a similar signification and express

3360-399: The west, aided by grabens ( rift valleys ) forming along its course in an east–west axis. As it did so, it captured several south-flowing rivers such as the Luangwa and Kafue. Eventually, the large lake trapped at Makgadikgadi (or a tributary of it) was captured by the middle Zambezi cutting back towards it, and emptied eastwards. The upper Zambezi was captured, as well. The middle Zambezi

3420-573: The wetlands are still an important habitat. The shrinking of the wetlands, though, resulted in uncontrolled hunting of animals such as buffalo and waterbuck during the Mozambican Civil War . Although the region has had a reduction in the populations of the large mammals, it is still home to some, including the reedbuck and migrating eland . Carnivores found here include lion ( Panthera leo ), leopard ( Panthera pardus ), cheetah ( Acinonyx jubatus ), spotted hyena ( Crocuta crocuta ), and side-striped jackal ( Canis adustus ). The floodplains are

3480-432: Was about 300 m (980 ft) lower than the upper Zambezi, and a high waterfall formed at the edge of the basalt plateau across which the upper river flows. This was the first Victoria Falls, somewhere down the Batoka Gorge near where Lake Kariba is now. The first European to come across the Zambezi River was Vasco da Gama in January 1498, who anchored at what he called Rio dos Bons Sinais (River of Good Omens), now

3540-519: Was also inadequate to meet public demand, so the public water supply for that city was changed over to using water from the Shashe Dam. The dam also supplies water to surrounding villages, Phoenix Mine (Tati Nickel Mining Company/Norilsk Nickel) and Mupane Gold Mine (IAMGOLD). Further downstream, the Dikgatlhong Dam impounds the Shashe near the village of Robelela , completed in December 2011. When full it will hold 400,000,000 cubic metres (1.4 × 10  cu ft). The next largest dam in Botswana,

3600-548: Was disrupted by the outbreak of World War II. Intermittent excavations followed in the 1950s, which were then continued by more thorough stratigraphic excavations throughout 1960s up to the late 1990s. Over decades, these excavations and scientific findings were largely held within academia and rarely reached public knowledge. The collection was assembled over 80 years of excavations by the University of Pretoria, although minor collections of Mapungubwe material are housed at several other institutions throughout South Africa. In 2003, with

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