This is an accepted version of this page
76-691: In digital typography , the Medieval Unicode Font Initiative ( MUFI ) is a project which aims to coordinate the encoding and display of special characters in medieval texts written in the Latin alphabet or in runes , which are not otherwise encoded as part of Unicode . MUFI was founded in July 2001 by a workgroup consisting of Odd Einar Haugen ( Bergen ), Alec McAllister ( Leeds ), and Tarrin Wills ( Sydney ). From 2006 to 2015, MUFI had
152-453: A type designer to create customized typefaces for their exclusive use. Different periodicals design their publications, including their typography, to achieve a particular tone or style. For example, USA Today uses a bold, colorful, and comparatively modern style through their use of a variety of typefaces and colors; type sizes vary widely, and the newspaper's name is placed on a colored background. In contrast, The New York Times uses
228-717: A board of four members, consisting of the three founding members and Andreas Stötzner ( Leipzig ). Currently the board consists of Tarrin Wills, Copenhagen (Chair), Alex Speed Kjeldsen, Copenhagen (Deputy chair), Odd Einar Haugen, Bergen and Beeke Stegmann, Iceland. In medieval texts, many special ligatures , scribal abbreviations , and letter forms existed, which are no longer a part of the Latin alphabet. As few of these characters are encoded in Unicode, ligatures have to be broken up into separate letters when digitized. Since few fonts support medieval ligatures or alternative letter forms, it
304-415: A body of text can instantaneously reveal the mood the author intends to convey to its readers. The message that a body of text conveys has a direct relationship with the typeface that is chosen. Therefore, when a person focuses on typography and setting type, they must pay very close attention to the typeface they choose. Choosing the correct typeface for a body of text can only be done after thoroughly reading
380-460: A customisation using a project-specific subset of the tags and attributes defined by the Guidelines. The TEI defines a sophisticated customization mechanism known as ODD for this purpose. In addition to documenting and describing each TEI tag, an ODD specification specifies its content model and other usage constraints, which may be expressed using schematron . TEI Lite is an example of such
456-456: A customization. It defines an XML-based file format for exchanging texts. It is a manageable selection from the extensive set of elements available in the full TEI Guidelines. As an XML-based format, TEI cannot directly deal with overlapping markup and non-hierarchical structures. A variety of options to represent this sort of data is suggested by the guidelines. The text of the TEI guidelines
532-405: A key difference. Much of the legibility research literature is atheoretical—various factors were tested individually or in combination (inevitably so, as the different factors are interdependent), but many tests lacked a model of reading or visual perception. Some typographers believe that the overall word shape ( Bouma ) is essential in readability and that the theory of parallel letter recognition
608-451: A minimum of distractions and anomalies, aims to produce clarity and transparency. Choice of typefaces is the primary aspect of text typography— prose fiction , non-fiction , editorial, educational, religious, scientific, spiritual, and commercial writing all have differing characteristics and requirements of appropriate typefaces (and their fonts or styles). For historic material, established text typefaces frequently are chosen according to
684-410: A more traditional approach, with fewer colors, less typeface variation, and more columns . Especially on the front page of newspapers and on magazine covers, headlines often are set in larger display typefaces to attract attention, and are placed near the masthead . Typography utilized to characterize text: Typography is intended to reveal the character of the text. Through the use of typography,
760-412: A product. Legibility describes how easily individual characters can be distinguished from one another. It is described by Walter Tracy as "the quality of being decipherable and recognisable". For instance, if a b and an h , or a 3 and an 8 , are difficult to distinguish at small sizes, this is a problem of legibility. Typographers are concerned with legibility insofar as it is their job to select
836-423: A scheme of historical genre acquired by a long process of accretion, with considerable overlap among historical periods. Contemporary books are more likely to be set with state-of-the-art "text romans" or "book romans" typefaces with serifs and design values echoing present-day design arts, which are closely based on traditional models such as those of Nicolas Jenson , Francesco Griffo (a punchcutter who created
SECTION 10
#1732765534285912-416: A wide variety of situations, including: Since digitization, typographical uses have spread to a wider range of applications, appearing on web pages, LCDs mobile phone screens, and hand-held video games. Traditionally, text is composed to create a readable, coherent, and visually satisfying block of type that works invisibly, without the awareness of the reader. Even distribution of typeset material, with
988-624: Is a literate programming language for XML schemas . In literate-programming style, ODD documents combine human-readable documentation and machine-readable models using the Documentation Elements module of the Text Encoding Initiative. Tools generate localised and internationalised HTML , ePub , or PDF human-readable output and DTDs , W3C XML Schema , Relax NG Compact Syntax, or Relax NG XML Syntax machine-readable output. The Roma web application
1064-439: Is also applied to the style, arrangement, and appearance of the letters, numbers, and symbols created by the process. Type design is a closely related craft, sometimes considered part of typography; most typographers do not design typefaces, and some type designers do not consider themselves typographers. Typography also may be used as an ornamental and decorative device, unrelated to the communication of information. Typography
1140-528: Is also the work of graphic designers , art directors , manga artists , comic book artists , and, now, anyone who arranges words, letters, numbers, and symbols for publication, display, or distribution, from clerical workers and newsletter writers to anyone self-publishing materials. Until the Digital Age , typography was a specialized occupation. Personal computers opened up typography to new generations of previously unrelated designers and lay users. As
1216-590: Is built around the ODD format and can use it to generate schemas in DTD , W3C XML Schema , Relax NG Compact Syntax, or Relax NG XML Syntax formats, as used by many XML validation tools and services. ODD is the format used internally by the Text Encoding Initiative for the TEI technical standard . Although ODD files generally describe the difference between a customized XML format and the full TEI model, ODD also can be used to describe XML formats that are entirely separate from
1292-456: Is customary to insert a non-breaking space before a colon (:) or semicolon (;) in a sentence, while in English it is not. In typesetting, color is the overall density of the ink on the page, determined mainly by the typeface, but also by the word spacing, leading , and depth of the margins. Text layout, tone, or color of the set text, and the interplay of text with the white space of
1368-618: Is difficult to transmit them reliably in digital formats. To prevent the possibility of corruption of the source texts, the eventual goal of the MUFI is to create a consensus on which characters to encode, and then present a completed proposal to the Unicode Consortium. In the meantime, a part of the Private Use Area has been assigned for encoding, so these characters can be placed in typefaces for testing and to speed up
1444-404: Is grounded in one or more academic disciplines and examples are given. The standard is split into two parts, a discursive textual description with extended examples and discussion and set of tag-by-tag definitions. Schemata in most of the modern formats ( DTD , RELAX NG and XML Schema (W3C) ) are generated automatically from the tag-by-tag definitions. A number of tools support the production of
1520-450: Is more legible, although strong opinions exist. Other topics, such as justified vs. unjustified type, use of hyphens, and proper typefaces for people with reading difficulties such as dyslexia , continue to be debated. Legibility is usually measured through the speed of reading, with comprehension scores used to check for effectiveness (that is, not a rushed or careless read). For example, Miles Tinker , who published numerous studies from
1596-407: Is often used to draw attention to a particular advertisement, combined with efficient use of color, shapes, and images. In the early twenty-first century, typography in advertising often reflects a company's brand . A brand may use typography to express its theme, personality, and message. Just by looking at the typeface, viewers can get an idea about the message and personality of the brand, which
SECTION 20
#17327655342851672-403: Is rich in examples. There is also a samples page on the TEI wiki, which gives examples of real-world projects that expose their underlying TEI. TEI allows texts to be marked up syntactically at any level of granularity, or mixture of granularities. For example, this paragraph (p) has been marked up into sentences (s) and clauses (cl). TEI has tags for marking up verse. This example (taken from
1748-441: Is wrong, less important, or not the entire picture. Word shape differs by outline, influenced by ascending and descending elements of lowercase letters and enables reading the entire word without having to parse out each letter. Readability also may be compromised by letter-spacing , word spacing, or leading that is too tight or too loose. It may be improved when generous vertical space separates text lines, making it easier for
1824-717: The Basic Multilingual Plane and includes named character references ("entities") for use in SGML and XML , especially in TEI formats such as Menota . It also specifies many characters that are not encoded in Unicode, yet, in the Private Use Area which is designated for such use. When MUFI PUA characters have been accepted for encoding they are removed from the PUA in subsequent versions. As of version 4.0 there are
1900-747: The Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement (26 chars.), Latin Extended Additional (10 chars.), Supplemental Punctuation (15 chars.) and Ancient Symbols (12 chars.). As of September 2017, Junicode ( GPL ) is the first typeface to cover all of MUFI 4.0, also in its italic face. Prior to MUFI 4.0, there were some 39 code point conflicts with Junicode. The Kurinto Font Folio has two typefaces – Kurinto Book UFI and Kurinto Roma UFI – that cover all of MUFI as of July 5, 2020, including code points added after version 4.0 of MUFI. Kurinto also includes
1976-793: The Mesopotamian cities of Uruk and Larsa , dating from the second millennium B.C. , may be evidence of type, wherein the reuse of identical characters was applied to create cuneiform text. Babylonian cylinder seals were used to create an impression on a surface by rolling the seal on wet clay. Typography was also implemented in the Phaistos Disc , an enigmatic Minoan printed item from Crete , which dates to between 1850 and 1600 B.C. It has been proposed that Roman lead pipe inscriptions were created with movable type printing, but German typographer Herbert Brekle recently dismissed this view. The essential criterion of type identity
2052-488: The 1930s to the 1960s, used a speed of reading test that required participants to spot incongruous words as an effectiveness filter. The Readability of Print Unit at the Royal College of Art under Professor Herbert Spencer with Brian Coe and Linda Reynolds did important work in this area. It was one of the centers that revealed the importance of the saccadic rhythm of eye movement for readability—in particular,
2128-468: The 1990s. His work caused an uproar in the design community due to his abandonment of standard practices in typeface selection, layout, and design. Experimental typography is said to place emphasis on expressing emotion, rather than having a concern for legibility while communicating ideas, hence considered bordering on being art. There are many facets to the expressive use of typography, and with those come many different techniques to help with visual aid and
2204-533: The French translation of the TEI Guidelines) shows a sonnet. The choice tag is used to represent sections of text that might be encoded or tagged in more than one possible way. In the following example, based on one in the standard, choice is used twice, once to indicate an original and a corrected number, and once to indicate an original and regularised spelling. One Document Does it all ("ODD")
2280-508: The MUFI homepage. Alphabetum has an almost complete coverage of MUFI 2.0 and some coverage of version 3.0, in addition to a complete coverage of MUFI 1.0. TITUS Cyberbit covers all of MUFI 1.0 and includes some additional characters at different places, as it predates the MUFI project. There is a project to make available MUFI characters, including version 4.0 ones, in LaTeX . The MUFI set includes standardized characters from many areas in
2356-594: The TEI technical standard , a journal , a wiki , a GitHub repository and a toolchain . The TEI Guidelines collectively define a type of XML format, and are the defining output of the community of practice. The format differs from other well-known open formats for text (such as HTML and OpenDocument ) in that it is primarily semantic rather than presentational: the semantics and interpretation of every tag and attribute are specified. There are some 500 different textual components and concepts: word , sentence , character , glyph , person , etc. Each
Medieval Unicode Font Initiative - Misplaced Pages Continue
2432-496: The TEI Guidelines are based on a TEI customization documented in a TEI ODD file. Even when users choose one of the off-the-shelf pre-generated schemas to validate against, these have been created from freely available customization files. The format is used by many projects worldwide. Practically all projects are associated with one or more universities. Some well-known projects that encode texts using TEI include: Prior to
2508-530: The TEI. One example of this is the W3C's Internationalization Tag Set which uses the ODD format to generate schemas and document its vocabulary. TEI customizations are specializations of the TEI XML specification for use in particular fields or by specific communities. Customization in the TEI is done through the ODD mechanism mentioned above. In truth since its P5 version, all so-called 'TEI Conformant' uses of
2584-407: The ability to take in (i.e., recognise the meaning of groups of) about three words at once and the physiognomy of the eye, which means the eye tires if the line required more than three or four of these saccadic jumps. More than this is found to introduce strain and errors in reading (e.g., doubling). The use of all-caps renders words indistinguishable as groups, all letters presenting a uniform line to
2660-548: The basic letterforms are more legible than typefaces that have been condensed, expanded, embellished, or abstracted. However, even a legible typeface can become unreadable through poor setting and placement, just as a less legible typeface can be made more readable through good design. Studies of both legibility and readability have examined a wide range of factors including type size and type design, comparing serif vs. sans-serif type, roman type vs. oblique type and italic type , line length , line spacing, color contrast,
2736-448: The brands are fully aware of and are tapping into the power of good typography. Typefaces used in advertisements convey different messages to the reader: classical ones are for a strong personality, while more modern ones may convey clean, neutral look. Bold typefaces are used for making statements and attracting attention. In any design, a balance has to be achieved between the visual impact and communication aspects. Digital technology in
2812-455: The bulk of a title has a more unfamiliar or unusual font, simpler sans-serif fonts will help complement the title while attracting more attention to the piece as a whole. In contemporary use, the practice and study of typography include a broad range, covering all aspects of letter design and application, both mechanical ( typesetting , type design , and typefaces) and manual ( handwriting and calligraphy ). Typographical elements may appear in
2888-522: The capability to create typography has become ubiquitous, the application of principles and best practices developed over generations of skilled workers and professionals has diminished. The word typography in English derives from the Greek roots týpos 'type' + -graphía 'writing'. Although typically applied to printed, published, broadcast, and reproduced materials in contemporary times, all words, letters, symbols, and numbers written alongside
2964-462: The code points of the CYFI and RUFI standards. There are three typefaces that are confirmed to cover all of MUFI 3.0. These are Cardo , Andron Scriptor Web and Palemonas MUFI . Only the last one comes in four faces (regular, italic, bold and both). LeedsUni supports all of MUFI 2.0. Caudex , which is available at Google Fonts for embedding, claims to support most of MUFI 3.0, but is not listed on
3040-477: The computer industry, leading to common misuse by the public of the term font when typeface is the proper term. "Experimental typography" is defined as the unconventional and more artistic approach to typeface selection. Francis Picabia was a Dada pioneer of this practice in the early twentieth century. David Carson is often associated with this movement, particularly for his work in Ray Gun magazine in
3116-744: The correct font to use. Brush script is an example of a font containing many characters that might be difficult to distinguish. The selection of cases influences the legibility of typography because using only uppercase letters (all-caps) reduces legibility. Readability refers to how easy it is to read the text as a whole, as opposed to the individual character recognition described by legibility. Use of margins, word and line spacing, and clear document structure all impact readability. Some fonts or font styles, for instance sans-serif fonts, are considered to have low readability and so are unsuited for large quantities of prose. Legibility "refers to perception" (being able to see as determined by physical limitations of
Medieval Unicode Font Initiative - Misplaced Pages Continue
3192-410: The creation of TEI, humanities scholars had no common standards for encoding electronic texts in a manner that would serve their academic goals ( Hockey 1993, p. 41). In 1987, a group of scholars representing fields in humanities, linguistics, and computing convened at Vassar College to put forth a set of guidelines known as the “Poughkeepsie Principles”. These guidelines directed the development of
3268-626: The design of right-hand edge (for example, justification , straight right hand edge) vs. ragged right, and whether text is hyphenated . Justified copy must be adjusted tightly during typesetting to prevent loss of readability, something beyond the capabilities of typical personal computers. Legibility research has been published since the late nineteenth century. Although there often are commonalities and agreement on many topics, others often create poignant areas of conflict and variation of opinion. For example, Alex Poole asserts that no one has conclusively answered which typeface style, serif or sans serif,
3344-431: The details of letter design are magnified. Color is used for its emotional effect in conveying the tone and nature of subject matter. Display typography encompasses: Typography has long been a vital part of promotional material and advertising . Designers often use typefaces to set a theme and mood in an advertisement (for example, using bold, large text to convey a particular message to the reader). Choice of typeface
3420-497: The development of typesetting systems. Although typography has evolved significantly from its origins, it is a largely conservative art that tends to cleave closely to tradition. This is because legibility is paramount, and so the typefaces that are the most readable usually are retained. In addition, the evolution of typography is inextricably intertwined with lettering by hand and related art forms, especially formal styles, which thrived for centuries preceding typography, and so
3496-408: The earliest naturalistic drawings by humans may be called typography. The word, typography , is derived from the Greek words τύπος typos 'form' or "impression" and γράφειν graphein 'to write', traces its origins to the first punches and dies used to make seals and currency in ancient times , which ties the concept to printing. The uneven spacing of the impressions on brick stamps found in
3572-491: The end of the twentieth century was to pair a sans-serif typeface for headings with a high-performance serif typeface of matching style for the text of an article. Typesetting conventions are modulated by orthography and linguistics , word structures, word frequencies, morphology , phonetic constructs and linguistic syntax . Typesetting conventions also are subject to specific cultural conventions. For example, in French it
3648-428: The evolution of typography must be discussed with reference to this relationship. In the nascent stages of European printing , the typeface ( blackletter , or Gothic) was designed in imitation of the popular hand-lettering styles of scribes . Initially, this typeface was difficult to read, because each letter was set in place individually and made to fit tightly into the allocated space. The art of manuscript writing,
3724-464: The eye to distinguish one line from the next, or previous line. Poorly designed typefaces and those that are too tightly or loosely fitted also may be less legible. Underlining also may reduce readability by eliminating the recognition effect contributed by the descending elements of letters. Periodical publications, especially newspapers and magazines, use typographical elements to achieve an attractive, distinctive appearance, to aid readers in navigating
3800-435: The eye), and readability "refers to comprehension" (understanding the meaning). Good typographers and graphic designers aim to achieve excellence in both. "The typeface chosen should be legible. That is, it should be read without effort. Sometimes legibility is simply a matter of type size; more often, however, it is a matter of typeface design. Case selection always influences legibility. In general, typefaces that are true to
3876-425: The eye, requiring special effort for separation and understanding. Currently , legibility research tends to be limited to critical issues or the testing of specific design solutions (for example, when new typefaces are developed). Examples of critical issues include typefaces for people with visual impairment , typefaces and case selection for highway and street signs, or for other conditions where legibility may make
SECTION 50
#17327655342853952-566: The following PUA assignments, organized into several sub-areas. Similar initiatives have been founded for Early Cyrillic Symbols ( Cyrillic Font Initiative , CYFI) and others. They are coordinated in the Linguistic Corporate Use Area (LINCUA). UNZ is a set of glyphs used in German blackletter fonts, their typographic ligatures in particular, compatible with MUFI. Additionally, it provides some glyph variants needed for
4028-486: The graphic design. Spacing and kerning, size-specific spacing, x-height and vertical proportions, character variation, width, weight, and contrast, are several techniques that are necessary to be taken into consideration when thinking about the appropriateness of specific typefaces or creating them. When placing two or more differing and/or contrasting fonts together, these techniques come into play for organizational strategies and demanding attractive qualities. For example, if
4104-408: The guidelines and the application of the guidelines to specific projects. A number of special tags are used to circumvent restrictions imposed by the underlying Unicode ; glyph to allow representation of characters that do not qualify for Unicode inclusion and choice to allow overcome the required strict linearity. Most users of the format do not use the complete range of tags, but produce
4180-516: The later transition to the final encodings (if the project is accepted). This was originally based upon work done by the TITUS project, which also deals with Greek , Cyrillic , Georgian , Arabic and Devanagari characters. As of Unicode 5.1, this proposal has been made, covering 152 characters, and most of these (89 in all) have been encoded in the Latin Extended-D block. Others are in
4256-458: The model for Aldine typefaces), and Claude Garamond . With their more specialized requirements, newspapers and magazines rely on compact, tightly fitted styles of text typefaces with serifs specially designed for the task, which offer maximum flexibility, readability, legibility, and efficient use of page space. Sans serif text typefaces (without serifs) often are used for introductory paragraphs, incidental text, and whole short articles. A fashion at
4332-502: The more commonly used Gothic (blackletter). Roman typeface also was based on hand-lettering styles. The development of Roman typeface can be traced back to Greek lapidary letters. Greek lapidary letters were carved into stone and "one of the first formal uses of Western letterforms "; after that, Roman lapidary letterforms evolved into the monumental capitals, which laid the foundation for Western typographical design, especially serif typefaces. There are two styles of Roman typefaces:
4408-411: The old style, and the modern. The former is characterized by its similarly weighted lines, while the latter is distinguished by its contrast of light and heavy lines. Often, these styles are combined. In relation to the international graphics of the 1920s - 1930s, the term "International Typographic Style" is used. In the 1950s - 1960s, such a phenomenon as "Swiss style" was formed in typography. By
4484-592: The origin of which was during Hellenistic and Roman bookmaking, reached its zenith in the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages. Metal typefaces notably altered the style, making it "crisp and uncompromising", and also brought about "new standards of composition". During the Renaissance period in France, Claude Garamond was partially responsible for the adoption of Roman typeface that eventually supplanted
4560-573: The page in combination with other graphic elements impart a "feel" or "resonance" to the subject matter. With printed media, typographers also are concerned with binding margins, paper selection, and printing methods when determining the correct color of the page. Three fundamental aspects of typography are legibility , readability , and aesthetics . Although in a non-technical sense "legible" and "readable" are often used synonymously, typographically they are separate but related concepts. Legibility and readability tend to support aesthetic aspects of
4636-430: The practical typefaces of traditional typography. Designs for typefaces could be created faster with the new technology, and for more specific functions. The cost for developing typefaces was drastically lowered, becoming widely available to the masses. The change has been called the "democratization of type" and has given new designers more opportunities to enter the field. The design of typefaces has developed alongside
SECTION 60
#17327655342854712-501: The publication, and in some cases for dramatic effect. By formulating a style guide , a publication or periodical standardizes with a relatively small collection of typefaces, each used for specific elements within the publication, and makes consistent use of typefaces, case, type sizes, italic, boldface, colors, and other typographic features such as combining large and small capital letters together. Some publications, such as The Guardian and The Economist , go so far as to commission
4788-470: The representation of some historic German handwriting styles, using the PUA code points F4F7…F4F8 and F500…F517. Digital typography Typography is the art and technique of arranging type to make written language legible , readable and appealing when displayed. The arrangement of type involves selecting typefaces , point sizes , line lengths , line spacing , letter spacing , and spaces between pairs of letters . The term typography
4864-495: The same period Letraset introduced dry transfer technology that allowed designers to transfer types instantly. The famous Lorem Ipsum gained popularity due to its usage in Letraset . During the mid-1980s personal computers allowed type designers to create typefaces digitally using commercial graphic design software such as Fontographer . Digital technology also enabled designers to create more experimental typefaces as well as
4940-669: The text from conveying its message to readers. A study from 2020 found that the participating subjects felt music sounded "more pleasant" when the CD cover featured round typeface. Type may be combined with negative space and images, forming relationships and dialog between the words and images for special effects. Display designs are a potent element in graphic design . Some sign designers exhibit less concern for readability, sacrificing it for an artistic manner. Color and size of type elements may be much more prevalent than in solely text designs. Most display items exploit type at larger sizes, where
5016-423: The text, understanding its context, and understanding what the text is wishing to convey. Once the typographer has an understanding of the text, then they have the responsibility of using the appropriate typeface to honor the writing done by the author of the text. Knowledge required to choose the correct typeface comes with understanding the historical background of typefaces and understanding the reason that typeface
5092-589: The text. Although typography can potentially attract the reader's attention and create a beautiful/attractive piece of text, the craft of typography is not limited to the aesthetic appeal of the text. On the contrary, the object of typography is to make the reading experience practical and useful. Bold colors, multiple typefaces, and colorful backgrounds in a typographic design may be eye-catching; however, it may not be appropriate for all bodies of text and could potentially make text illegible. Overuse of design elements such as colors and typefaces can be unsettling, preventing
5168-407: The title to convey its importance, which directly informs the reader of the structure in which the text is intended to be read, and increases readability from varying distances. Typography utilized to make reading practical: Typography not only must honor the tone of the text but also share the responsibility of making the audience commence reading and sustaining the audience's attention throughout
5244-434: The twentieth and twenty-first centuries has enabled the creation of typefaces for advertising that are more experimental than traditional typefaces. Menota The Text Encoding Initiative ( TEI ) is a text-centric community of practice in the academic field of digital humanities , operating continuously since the 1980s. The community currently runs a mailing list, meetings and conference series, and maintains
5320-423: The twentieth century, computers turned typeface design into a rather simplified process. This has allowed the number of typefaces and styles to proliferate exponentially, as there now are thousands available. Confusion between typeface and font (the various styles of a single typeface) occurred in 1984 when Steve Jobs mislabeled typefaces as fonts for Apple computers and his error has been perpetuated throughout
5396-647: The vast quantities required to print multiple copies of texts. This technical breakthrough was instrumental in starting the Printing Revolution and the first book printed with lead-based movable type was the Gutenberg Bible . Rapidly advancing technology revolutionized typography in the latter twentieth century. During the 1960s some camera-ready typesetting could be produced in any office or workshop with stand-alone machines such as those introduced by IBM (see: IBM Selectric typewriter ). During
5472-529: The words are formed by assembling single letter tiles in the desired order, which were reasonably widespread in medieval Northern Europe. Typography with movable type was invented during the eleventh-century Song dynasty in China by Bi Sheng (990–1051). His movable type system was manufactured from ceramic materials, and clay type printing continued to be practiced in China until the Qing dynasty . Wang Zhen
5548-452: Was created. For example, if the text is titled "Commercial Real Estate Transactions" and elaborates on the real estate market throughout the body, then the appropriate typeface is a serif typeface, because the author intends to inform his audience on a serious topic and not entertain his audience with an anecdote; a serif typeface would convey a sense of seriousness to the audience instantaneously. The typographer would also employ larger type for
5624-465: Was limited and the technology did not spread beyond East and Central Asia, however. Modern lead-based movable type, along with the mechanical printing press , is most often attributed to the goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg in 1439. His type pieces, made from a lead -based alloy , suited printing purposes so well that the alloy is still used today. Gutenberg developed specialized techniques for casting and combining cheap copies of letter punches in
5700-611: Was met by medieval print artifacts such as the Latin Pruefening Abbey inscription of 1119 that was created by the same technique as the Phaistos Disc. The silver altarpiece of patriarch Pellegrinus II (1195–1204) in the cathedral of Cividale was printed with individual letter punches. Apparently, the same printing technique may be found in tenth to twelfth century Byzantine reliquaries . Other early examples include individual letter tiles where
5776-560: Was one of the pioneers of wooden movable type . Although the wooden type was more durable under the mechanical rigors of handling, repeated printing wore the character faces down and the types could be replaced only by carving new pieces. Metal movable type was first invented in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty , approximately 1230. Hua Sui introduced bronze type printing to China in 1490 AD. The diffusion of both movable-type systems
#284715