177-533: The mengdu ( Jeju and Korean : 멩두 , romanized : mengdu ), also called the three mengdu ( 삼멩두 , sam-mengdu ) and the three mengdu of the sun and moon ( 일월삼멩두 , irwol sam-mengdu ), are a set of three kinds of brass ritual devices—a pair of knives, a bell, and divination implements—which are the symbols of shamanic priesthood in the Korean shamanism of southern Jeju Island . Although similar ritual devices are found in mainland Korea,
354-627: A control group of native Jeju speakers. On average, South Korean native speakers from all three dialect zones answered less than 10% of the basic comprehension questions correctly, while native Jeju speakers answered over 89% of the questions correctly. These results are comparable to the results of an intelligibility test of Norwegian for native Dutch speakers. Diaspora Jeju speakers living in Japan have also reported that they find it difficult to understand South Korean news media, and resort to Japanese subtitles when watching South Korean TV shows. Jeju
531-878: A 2,600-year-old shipwreck off Sicily found them to be an alloy made with 75–80% copper, 15–20% zinc and small percentages of nickel, lead and iron. During the later part of first millennium BC the use of brass spread across a wide geographical area from Britain and Spain in the west to Iran , and India in the east. This seems to have been encouraged by exports and influence from the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean where deliberate production of brass from metallic copper and zinc ores had been introduced. The 4th century BC writer Theopompus , quoted by Strabo , describes how heating earth from Andeira in Turkey produced "droplets of false silver", probably metallic zinc, which could be used to turn copper into oreichalkos. In
708-524: A 2014 poetry anthology have also been published. Local bands and theater troupes have made Jeju-language performances. Regional newspapers such as the Jemin Ilbo and the Halla Ilbo include Jeju-language sections. Local branches of KBS and MBC have launched Jeju radio programs and a television series. Recent South Korean media with nationwide appeal, including the 2010 television series Life
885-468: A copper-zinc alloy was not understood until the post-medieval period because the zinc vapor which reacted with copper to make brass was not recognized as a metal . The King James Bible makes many references to "brass" to translate "nechosheth" (bronze or copper) from Hebrew to English. The earliest brasses may have been natural alloys made by smelting zinc-rich copper ores . By the Roman period brass
1062-544: A diaspora community in Osaka , Japan , as many Jeju people migrated to Osaka in the 1920s, but even there, younger members of the community tend to speak Japanese . Total: 205 Various terms in both Korean and English exist for the Jeju language, which also vary depending on whether it is considered a separate language or a dialect of Korean by the speaker. Among native speakers, the term "Jeju speech" ( 제주말 ; Jeju-mal )
1239-444: A disc with the inscribed side up mean that the gateways between the gods and humanity are open. These are usually favorable signs that the gods are willing to descend and that the future will be favorable for the worshippers. But these become dangerous omens at the end of a ritual or in healing ceremonies. The gates being open, the gods are unwilling to leave even after the ritual is done, and the gods of pestilence will not be depart from
1416-497: A distinct language independent from standard Korean. By the fifteenth century, when the invention of Hangul greatly improved the understanding of Korean phonology, Seoul Korean and Jeju were already divergent; the Seoul prestige dialect of fifteenth-century Middle Korean disallowed the diphthong /jʌ/ , which Jeju allows. Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century references to the language of Jeju by mainland Korean literati state that it
1593-513: A diverse range of beliefs, including shamanism , Buddhism , and Christianity , each contributing to the island's rich religious heritage and spiritual landscape. These religious traditions intersect with cultural rituals and festivals, such as the annual Jeju Fire Festival and Seongsan Sunrise Festival, which celebrate Jeju's natural beauty, cultural heritage, and community solidarity. Jeju has historically had no written language . Two recently devised standard orthographies are currently in use:
1770-461: A golden fan. The final position of nadan-jabu-dari , in which both rounded sides face right, is highly propitious. However, both configurations are considered unwelcome when the shaman is sending the gods back, as it suggests that the gods are unwilling to leave. Shamans also employ knives for a number of other ritual purposes, including in ceremonial dances, to expel demons of pestilence in healing rituals, to cut out parts of sacrificial offerings for
1947-457: A handle (9–10 cm (3.5–3.9 in) long); and the "skirt" ( chima ) of the knife, consisting of strands (55–60 cm (22–24 in) long) cut from usually eight but sometimes twelve pages of Korean paper , which are connected to the end of the handle by a string with three knots. Every part of the knife is interpreted by reference to the Chogong bon-puri myth, although shamans disagree on
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#17328020852062124-419: A highly beneficial hard layer of aluminium oxide (Al 2 O 3 ) to be formed on the surface that is thin, transparent, and self-healing. Tin has a similar effect and finds its use especially in seawater applications (naval brasses). Combinations of iron, aluminium, silicon, and manganese make brass wear - and tear-resistant . The addition of as little as 1% iron to a brass alloy will result in an alloy with
2301-399: A larger and more conservative vowel inventory. Jeju is a head-final , agglutinative , suffixing language like Korean. Nouns are followed by particles that may function as case markers . Verbs inflect for tense, aspect, mood , evidentiality , relative social status, formality, and other grammatical information. Korean and Jeju differ significantly in their verbal paradigms. For instance,
2478-410: A laywoman's life as a diver , was obliged to become a shaman to take care of the mengdu and officiate the village rites. Other mengdu are newly forged, and are termed "self-made mengdu " ( jajak mengdu ). The brass for the self-made mengdu is traditionally gathered by asking the lay worshippers for donations of brass vessels and cutlery. Once the necessary metal has been pooled, the shaman visits
2655-657: A lower temperature to allow more zinc to be absorbed . Albertus Magnus noted that the "power" of both calamine and tutty could evaporate and described how the addition of powdered glass could create a film to bind it to the metal. German brass making crucibles are known from Dortmund dating to the 10th century AD and from Soest and Schwerte in Westphalia dating to around the 13th century confirm Theophilus' account, as they are open-topped, although ceramic discs from Soest may have served as loose lids which may have been used to reduce zinc evaporation , and have slag on
2832-498: A northern and southern dialect with a geographic divide at Hallasan is sometimes posited, but an eastern-western dialectal divide cutting through Jeju City and Seogwipo may better explain the few dialectal differences that do exist. A 2010 survey of regional variation in 305 word sets suggests that the north–south divide and the east–west divide coexist, resulting in four distinct dialect groups. The Koreanic languages are likely not native to Jeju Island; it has been proposed that
3009-438: A noticeable magnetic attraction. Brass will corrode in the presence of moisture, chlorides , acetates , ammonia , and certain acids. This often happens when the copper reacts with sulfur to form a brown and eventually black surface layer of copper sulfide which, if regularly exposed to slightly acidic water such as urban rainwater, can then oxidize in air to form a patina of green-blue copper carbonate . Depending on how
3186-881: A number of various reasons such as education, employment, and marriage contributing to decline of the Jejueo language. As a result, there are currently no monolingual speakers of Jeju. The distinctive phonological, syntactic, and lexical features of the Jeju Island language, known as Jejueo or Jeju dialect, compared to Standard Korean, pose obstacles to effective communication. Phonological differences, such as variations in pitch accent and vowel distinctions, may lead to misunderstandings or difficulties in comprehension between Jeju natives and speakers of Standard Korean. Communication can also be made more difficult by syntactic variances, word order flexibility, and particle usage inconsistencies between Standard Korean and Jejueo. In contrast to
3363-455: A role. DZR-brass is used in water boiler systems. This brass alloy must be produced with great care, with special attention placed on a balanced composition and proper production temperatures and parameters to avoid long-term failures. An example of DZR brass is the C352 brass, with about 30% zinc, 61–63% copper, 1.7–2.8% lead, and 0.02–0.15% arsenic. The lead and arsenic significantly suppress
3540-456: A senior shaman feeds him morsels of the sacrificial offerings, calling them a gift from the Mengdu triplets. Once this is done, the senior shaman presses the sangjan and the cheonmun on the shoulders of the kneeling novice, saying that the triplet gods are stamping their seal on him. They then use the divination implements to ascertain whether the novice will be a capable shaman. Having received
3717-431: A senior shaman until he can acquire mengdu of his own. Jeju shamans have three fundamental tasks: communion with the gods, healing of the sick, and divination of the future. Jeon Ju-hee suggests that each mengdu corresponds to a task, with the bell that opens the gods' doors standing for communion and the knives that vanquish pestilence symbolizing healing. Yet the mengdu are not mere ritual tools. Every set of mengdu
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#17328020852063894-401: A shaman is under no obligation to inherit their mengdu . But the gods may select certain family members to be shamans by sending them sinbyeong : a series of symptoms that range from hallucination and insanity to a fervent desire to participate in shamanic ritual, and which can be cured only by being inheriting or forging mengdu and being initiated into shamanism. Inheritance is accompanied by
4071-420: A single god. There is rarely a reason to replace the brass blade and handle, but the paper skirt requires regular replacement. In the case of eight-page skirts, five pages' worth of paper is replaced at the beginning of every new ritual. The strands remaining from the previous ceremony are called the underskirt ( sok-chima ), and the new strands are called the outer skirt ( geot-chima ). Strands may be replaced in
4248-418: A straw-cutting machine, and is believed to presage unpreventable misfortune. The latter represents her parents' decision to stab her with swords instead, and means that misfortune is impending but may be forestalled with the correct rituals for the gods. The rounded sides facing each other is termed ae-san-dari , the forlorn bridge. It symbolizes Noga-danpung-agissi facing her parents as they see each other for
4425-407: A supplementary gift, sometimes in the form of land or property and in other cases in the form of cash payments. Some of the older shaman's clientele of worshippers is also inherited together with the mengdu . Nowadays, inheritance may also be to a worthy disciple, close friend, or even to an unconnected shaman, as direct inheritance is considered preferable to the other means of transfer. However, this
4602-626: A system created in 1991 by scholars of the Jeju Dialect Research Society, and a system promulgated by the provincial government in 2014. Both systems use the Korean alphabet Hangul with one additional letter ㆍ , which was used in the Middle and Early Modern Korean scripts but is now defunct in written Korean. Similar to the modern Korean script, Jeju orthographies have morphophonemic tendencies, meaning that transcribing
4779-574: Is Beautiful and The Great Merchant , the 2012 drama film Jiseul , and the 2015 television series Warm and Cozy , have also featured spoken Jeju. In addition to the difference in language and dialect, Jeju Islanders and mainland Koreans share a number of cultural differences. The historical isolation and unique identity of Jeju Island, which have nourished a strong sense of regional pride and unity among Jeju inhabitants, are two significant cultural differences. Jeju Island's distinct cultural traditions, folk beliefs, and practices set it apart from
4956-621: Is Standard Korean. Nearly all residents of Jeju Island are bilingual in Standard Korean and Jeju, while many younger individuals are even more fluent in English than in Jeju. Standard Korean is most commonly used in the majority of public areas, while Jeju tends to be reserved for use at home and a few local markets. All schools located on Jeju Island are required to teach Standard Korean and only offer Jeju as an elective course . In addition, many Jeju Islander migrate to mainland Korea for
5133-555: Is a Koreanic language originally from Jeju Island , South Korea . It is not mutually intelligible with mainland Korean dialects. While it was historically considered a divergent Jeju dialect of the Korean language, it is increasingly referred to as a separate language in its own right. It is declining in usage and was classified by UNESCO in 2010 as critically endangered , the highest level of language endangerment possible. Revitalization efforts are ongoing. The consonants of Jeju are similar to those of Seoul Korean, but Jeju has
5310-697: Is a free reed aerophone , also often made from brass. In organ pipes of the reed family, brass strips (called tongues) are used as the reeds, which beat against the shallot (or beat "through" the shallot in the case of a "free" reed). Although not part of the brass section, snare drums are also sometimes made of brass. Some parts on electric guitars are also made from brass, especially inertia blocks on tremolo systems for its tonal properties, and for string nuts and saddles for both tonal properties and its low friction. The bactericidal properties of brass have been observed for centuries, particularly in marine environments where it prevents biofouling . Depending upon
5487-414: Is a recent phenomenon due to the ongoing decline in the number of people who want to be traditionally ordained priests, which means that there are often no family members who are willing to take on the mengdu . When there is no clear inheritor, the mengdu are usually buried next to the final holder's grave. These are called "earth-by-the-grave mengdu " ( jejeol mengdu ). Although no longer in active use,
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5664-448: Is an outstanding masterpiece of Romanesque brass casting, though also often described as bronze. The metal of the early 12th-century Gloucester Candlestick is unusual even by medieval standards in being a mixture of copper, zinc, tin, lead, nickel , iron, antimony and arsenic with an unusually large amount of silver , ranging from 22.5% in the base to 5.76% in the pan below the candle. The proportions of this mixture may suggest that
5841-477: Is believed to embody the spirits of the Mengdu triplets and other figures from the Chogong bon-puri , the spirits of major historical Jeju shamans, and the spirits of shamans who had once used either the same mengdu set or the original set which the current mengdu are based on. Every mengdu set is thus associated with a number of " mengdu ancestors" ( mengdu josang ), including both universal figures manifested in every Jeju mengdu and shamans only incarnated in
6018-653: Is considered inadvisable both in practical terms, as the ancestors of all sets must be maintained, and religiously, as the ancestors of each set might become jealous of each other and lead to discord in the shaman's family as well. Multiple sets may be melted and reforged. In one case, a shaman who had seven sets melted six of them and reforged them into only one, in order to relieve the burden on her family who would succeed her. Another shaman had two sets, one inherited from her great-aunt and another made by her husband. She melted and reforged them into two new sets, both copies of her great aunt's set, in order to prevent conflict between
6195-507: Is more malleable than bronze or zinc. The relatively low melting point of brass (900 to 940 °C; 1,650 to 1,720 °F, depending on composition) and its flow characteristics make it a relatively easy material to cast . By varying the proportions of copper and zinc, the properties of the brass can be changed, allowing hard and soft brasses. The density of brass is 8.4 to 8.73 g/cm (0.303 to 0.315 lb/cu in). Today, almost 90% of all brass alloys are recycled. Because brass
6372-608: Is most commonly used. In English-language scholarship, it is often called Jejueo or Jejuan. Jeju is closely related to Korean. It was traditionally considered an especially divergent dialect of Korean, and as of 2019 is still referred to as such by the National Institute of the Korean Language and the South Korean Ministry of Education . Until the 2000s, South Korean academia preferred
6549-516: Is most like Chinese, and the sounds they make while driving cattle and horses are yet more impossible to tell apart. Is this because the climate is not far from that of China, or because the Yuan dynasty once ruled and appointed officials here and the Chinese mingled with them?'... What is called the provincial language is but high and thin and cannot be understood." In 1629, the Korean government banned
6726-430: Is not ferromagnetic , ferrous scrap can be separated from it by passing the scrap near a powerful magnet. Brass scrap is melted and recast into billets that are extruded into the desired form and size. The general softness of brass means that it can often be machined without the use of cutting fluid , though there are exceptions to this. Aluminium makes brass stronger and more corrosion-resistant. Aluminium also causes
6903-426: Is not as hard as bronze and so is not suitable for most weapons and tools. Nor is it suitable for marine uses, because the zinc reacts with minerals in salt water, leaving porous copper behind; marine brass, with added tin, avoids this, as does bronze. Brass is often used in situations in which it is important that sparks not be struck, such as in fittings and tools used near flammable or explosive materials. Brass
7080-444: Is pregnant. The hole in the handle represents the hole by which the imprisoned girl is fed, and the three knots on the string tied to it are the triplets themselves. The skirt is either Noga-danpung-agissi's skirt, or the veil that she wears while meeting the priest. There are sometimes six strands of string beneath the paper skirt. These stand for the Mengdu triplets and Neosame-neodoryeong, who in some versions appear as triplets and not
7257-579: Is sometimes inevitable, as when someone is initiated without any close friends or relatives who are already shamans. Some shamans make their own mengdu because they are too proud to worship the ancestors of other families. The mengdu are traditionally placed on a shelf or in a chest in the rice granary of the shaman's household. As shamans now generally live in Western-style houses without rice granaries, they now tend to store their mengdu in cupboards, cabinets, or closets. In modern households where
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7434-498: Is still commonly used in applications where corrosion resistance and low friction are required, such as locks , hinges , gears , bearings , ammunition casings, zippers , plumbing , hose couplings , valves and electrical plugs and sockets . It is used extensively for musical instruments such as horns and bells . The composition of brass makes it a favorable substitute for copper in costume jewelry and fashion jewelry , as it exhibits greater resistance to corrosion. Brass
7611-529: Is susceptible to stress corrosion cracking , especially from ammonia or substances containing or releasing ammonia. The problem is sometimes known as season cracking after it was first discovered in brass cartridges used for rifle ammunition during the 1920s in the British Indian Army . The problem was caused by high residual stresses from cold forming of the cases during manufacture, together with chemical attack from traces of ammonia in
7788-469: The malmi (prayer recitation) for certain rituals, and while chanting certain shamanic narratives, including the Menggam bon-puri and any ancestral bon-puri . It is sometimes hung on the keun-dae , the bamboo pole by which the gods are believed to descend into the human world. The divinatory implements consist of five objects made of brass: a pair of sangjan cups, a pair of cheonmun discs, and
7965-559: The Ancient Greek translation of this term, was later adapted to the Latin aurichalcum meaning "golden copper" which became the standard term for brass. In the 4th century BC Plato knew orichalkos as rare and nearly as valuable as gold and Pliny describes how aurichalcum had come from Cypriot ore deposits which had been exhausted by the 1st century AD. X-ray fluorescence analysis of 39 orichalcum ingots recovered from
8142-599: The Bronze Head from Ife of "heavily leaded zinc-brass" and the Bronze Head of Queen Idia , both also British Museum, are better described as brass, though of variable compositions. Work in brass or bronze continued to be important in Benin art and other West African traditions such as Akan goldweights , where the metal was regarded as a more valuable material than in Europe. The Renaissance saw important changes to both
8319-468: The Chogong bon-puri narrative, Noga-danpung-agissi crosses physical bridges with the same names. The two most inauspicious configurations are jakdo-dari , the straw-cutter's bridge, and kal-seon-dari , the bridge of the raised swords. In both, the rounded side of the blade falls outward. Jakdo-dari is when the knives are crossed, and kal-seon-dari is when they do not. The former symbolizes Noga-danpung-agissi's parents' initial decision to kill her with
8496-467: The East Sea to forge the first mengdu implements. In some versions, this smith's mengdu are unsound, and the triplets' father summons a celestial smith named Jeon'gyeongnok to forge good-quality mengdu . In any case, the triplets store them in a palace where their mother and Neosameneo-doryeong will keep watch over them. They then ascend into the afterlife to become divine judges of the dead, wielding
8673-674: The Eastern Mediterranean early copper-zinc alloys are now known in small numbers from a number of 3rd millennium BC sites in the Aegean , Iraq , the United Arab Emirates , Kalmykia , Turkmenistan and Georgia and from 2nd millennium BC sites in western India , Uzbekistan , Iran , Syria , Iraq and Canaan . Isolated examples of copper-zinc alloys are known in China from the 1st century AD, long after bronze
8850-582: The Japanese colonial rule , Jejueo remained the dominating language in both public and private spheres on Jeju Island. However, with the entrance of Japanese loanwords to the lexicon, some speakers became monolingual Japanese speakers. Migration of Jeju Islanders to Japan began to skyrocket in 1911, with significant communities established, more so in cities like Osaka, becoming home to 38,000 Jeju Islanders by 1911. Despite gaining independence, citizens of Jeju and Korea still migrated to Japan, continuing to impact
9027-499: The civil service examinations . Seven years later, the Confucian scholars go to Seoul to pass the examinations and take the triplets with them. The scholars leave the triplets stranded atop a pear tree on the way, but they are rescued by a local nobleman who is forewarned by a dream of dragons ensnared on the tree. They reach Seoul and are the only people to pass the examinations. Outraged, the scholars imprison Noga-danpung-agissi in
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#17328020852069204-465: The continuative aspect marker of Jeju and the mood or aspect distinction of many Jeju connective suffixes are absent in Korean. Most of the Jeju lexicon is Koreanic, and the language preserves many Middle Korean words now lost in Standard Korean. Jeju may also have a Peninsular Japonic substratum, but this argument has been disputed. Jeju was already divergent from the Seoul dialect of Korean by
9381-484: The initiation rituals of Jeju shamanism. Traditional Jeju religion is nowadays in decline, and there is currently a glut of mengdu sets within the traditional priesthood. At the same time, many ritual practitioners who are not trained and initiated in the traditional manner are now making their own mengdu . The mengdu are closely associated with the Chogong bon-puri , a shamanic narrative whose recitation forms
9558-403: The mengdu should be explained by it. As with most works of oral literature , multiple versions of the narrative exist. The summary given below is based on the version recited by the high-ranking shaman An Sa-in (1912–1990) with a focus on the details relevant to the mengdu . Jimjin'guk and Imjeong'guk, a rich couple, are nearing fifty but still have no children. A Buddhist priest visits from
9735-457: The mengdu , referring back to the recurrent element in the triplets' names. Jeju shamans carry a pair of sacred knives, fashioned after the knives that the triplets take when they ascend to heaven to punish the Confucian scholars. Shamans refer to the knives as sin-kal seonsaeng Siwang daebeonji , literally "godly knife the master, daebeonji of the Siwang". The Siwang are the divine judges of
9912-611: The mengdu , the gods called the mengdu ancestors that we carry with us judge correctly for us. We can cure the illnesses of the sick and people judge that we have sudeok if they set out the right road for us. Mengdu with numerous ancestors, or those associated with particularly high-ranking shamans, possess greater spiritual authority and are treated with greater deference by shamans and worshippers alike. By contrast, newly fabricated mengdu not based on any preexisting set have no specific ancestors of their own, and are thought to be prone to inaccurate divination results. By emphasizing
10089-429: The sandae vessel. Some versions of the Chogong bon-puri state that the sangjan and cheonmun used by the triplets were wood, not brass, but that they fashioned brass models of the originals so that they could be used by future shamans. The sangjan ( Sino-Korean 算盞 "divinatory cup") is an unadorned brass cup, 4–5 cm (1.6–2.0 in) wide at the mouth and 1–2 cm (0.39–0.79 in) tall. It represents
10266-416: The saxhorns . Other wind instruments may be constructed of brass or other metals, and indeed most modern student-model flutes and piccolos are made of some variety of brass, usually a cupronickel alloy similar to nickel silver (also known as German silver) . Clarinets , especially low clarinets such as the contrabass and subcontrabass , are sometimes made of metal because of limited supplies of
10443-453: The saxophones and sarrusophones are classified as woodwind instruments, they are normally made of brass for similar reasons, and because their wide, conical bores and thin-walled bodies are more easily and efficiently made by forming sheet metal than by machining wood. The keywork of most modern woodwinds, including wooden-bodied instruments, is also usually made of an alloy such as nickel silver. Such alloys are stiffer and more durable than
10620-420: The surface area of the copper helping it react and zinc contents of up to 33% wt were reported using this new technique. In 1738 Nehemiah's son William Champion patented a technique for the first industrial scale distillation of metallic zinc known as distillation per descencum or "the English process". This local zinc was used in speltering and allowed greater control over the zinc content of brass and
10797-420: The "palace of Indra of the three thousand heavens". This is generally understood as a metaphor for the scholars killing her, with other versions explicitly mentioning a murder. The triplets visit their father, who makes them abandon their old lives and become shamans in order to save their mother. He asks his sons what they saw first when they came to the temple, and they respond that they saw heaven, earth, and
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#173280208520610974-508: The 13th century Italian Marco Polo describe how this was obtained by sublimation from zinc ores and condensed onto clay or iron bars, archaeological examples of which have been identified at Kush in Iran. It could then be used for brass making or medicinal purposes. In 10th century Yemen al-Hamdani described how spreading al-iglimiya , probably zinc oxide, onto the surface of molten copper produced tutiya vapor which then reacted with
11151-528: The 1st century BC the Greek Dioscorides seems to have recognized a link between zinc minerals and brass describing how Cadmia ( zinc oxide ) was found on the walls of furnaces used to heat either zinc ore or copper and explaining that it can then be used to make brass. By the first century BC brass was available in sufficient supply to use as coinage in Phrygia and Bithynia , and after
11328-655: The 2007 Language Act for the Preservation and Promotion of the Jeju Language, and by non-governmental organizations working to preserve the language. The only English-language monograph on Jeju, published in 2019, consistently refers to it as a language as well. Jeju is not mutually intelligible with even the southernmost dialects of South Korea. In a 2014 survey measuring intelligibility, Korean speakers from three different dialect zones (Seoul, Busan , and Yeosu ) were exposed to one minute of spoken Jeju, with
11505-515: The Augustan currency reform of 23 BC it was also used to make Roman dupondii and sestertii . The uniform use of brass for coinage and military equipment across the Roman world may indicate a degree of state involvement in the industry, and brass even seems to have been deliberately boycotted by Jewish communities in Palestine because of its association with Roman authority. Brass
11682-563: The European and Islamic worlds. The cementation process continued to be used but literary sources from both Europe and the Islamic world seem to describe variants of a higher temperature liquid process which took place in open-topped crucibles. Islamic cementation seems to have used zinc oxide known as tutiya or tutty rather than zinc ores for brass-making, resulting in a metal with lower iron impurities. A number of Islamic writers and
11859-457: The German chemist Johann Glauber had recognized that calamine was "nothing else but unmeltable zinc" and that zinc was a "half ripe metal". However some earlier high zinc, low iron brasses such as the 1530 Wightman brass memorial plaque from England may have been made by alloying copper with zinc and include traces of cadmium similar to those found in some zinc ingots from China. However,
12036-585: The Germany city of Aachen alone was capable of producing 300,000 cwt of brass per year. After several false starts during the 16th and 17th centuries the brass industry was also established in England taking advantage of abundant supplies of cheap copper smelted in the new coal fired reverberatory furnace . In 1723 Bristol brass maker Nehemiah Champion patented the use of granulated copper, produced by pouring molten metal into cold water. This increased
12213-519: The Hwanggeum Temple and tells them to make offerings in his temple for a hundred days. They do so, and a girl is miraculously born. They name her Noga-danpung-agissi. When the girl is fifteen, both of her parents leave temporarily. They imprison her behind two doors with seventy-eight and forty-eight locks each and tell the family servant to feed her through a hole, so that she cannot leave the house while they are absent. The Buddhist priest of
12390-444: The Hwanggeum Temple learns of the great beauty of Noga-danpung-agissi and visits the house to ask for alms . When the girl points out that she cannot leave the house, the priest takes out a bell and rings it three times, which breaks every lock. When she comes out wearing a veil of chastity , he strokes her head three times and leaves. Noga-danpung-agissi then becomes pregnant. When her parents return, they decide to kill her to restore
12567-403: The Jeju Language, which established five-year plans for state-backed language preservation. The Act encouraged public schools on Jeju Island to offer Jeju as an extracurricular activity, as well as to incorporate the language as a part of regular classes if relevant and feasible. In addition, multiple programs were provided for adults. For example, adult language programs are offered every year at
12744-540: The Jeju National University and are free of charge. There are also several local centres on Jeju Island that offer classes in Jeju Language specifically to marriage-based immigrants. However, it was not until UNESCO's 2010 designation of Jeju as critically endangered that the provincial government became proactive in Jeju preservation efforts. In 2016, the provincial government allotted ₩ 685,000,000 (US$ 565,592 in 2016) to revitalization programs, and
12921-642: The Jeju language currently in use as "light Jeju language" or "mixed (with Korean) language." Since 2010, UNESCO has classified Jeju as a critically endangered language , defined as one whose "youngest speakers are grandparents and older... [who] speak the language partially and infrequently." In 2018, the Endangered Languages Archive at SOAS University of London collected audio and video recordings of native Jeju speakers having everyday conversations, singing traditional songs, and performing rituals. The official language of South Korea
13098-598: The Jeju verbal paradigm and in select vocabulary such as kinship terms. The language is more vigorous in Osaka, where there may be fluent speakers born as late as the 1960s. A 2008 survey of adult residents' knowledge of ninety Jeju cultural words showed that only twenty-one were understood by the majority of those surveyed. Lack of heritage knowledge of Jeju is even more severe among younger people. In 2010, 400 Jeju teenagers were surveyed for their knowledge of 120 basic Jeju vocabulary items, but only 19 words were recognized by
13275-408: The Korean mainland are a result of the island's geographic isolation. For example, Jeju's traditional women divers, or haenyeo , represent the ideals of resiliency, collaboration, and environmental care and represent the island's matriarchal legacy and collective spirit. Moreover, Jeju Island's tumultuous history, including the Jeju rebellion and subsequent mass killings, has left a profound impact on
13452-470: The Koreanic ancestor of Jeju remains unclear. During the late thirteenth century, Jeju Island came under direct Yuan administration, which lead to significant migration of Mongol soldiers to the island. Acting as a superstratum, their language contributed to the change of the local language. Yang Changyong, a linguist, speculates that Mongol influence played a significant role in the formation of Jejueo as
13629-611: The Research Centre for Jeju Studies was opened with the purpose of implementing projects for the revitalization and safeguarding of Jeju Language. The project encouraged the promotion of Jeju Language in schools by tasking the Education Bureau with several initiatives, including a training program for teachers. The project also started a radio broadcast in Jeju Language, as well as a radio campaign for Jeju slang and an annual Jeju Language festival. An iPhone application
13806-545: The Roman process and the use of the term tutty by Albertus Magnus in the 13th century suggests influence from Islamic technology. The 12th century German monk Theophilus described how preheated crucibles were one sixth filled with powdered calamine and charcoal then topped up with copper and charcoal before being melted, stirred then filled again. The final product was cast , then again melted with calamine. It has been suggested that this second melting may have taken place at
13983-480: The Seoul dialect was more sophisticated. In addition, Jeju is often associated with the countryside, as the majority of speakers tend to have traditional occupations, including farming, fishing, and diving. As a result, many younger children express a disinterest in learning the language. However, recent surveys show improved sentiment towards the Jeju language. In a National Institute of the Korean Language survey in 2005, only 9.4% of Jeju Islanders were very proud of
14160-439: The actual implements that they used. Every time that a set is inherited by the next generation of shamans, the previous holder becomes enshrined as the newest mengdu ancestor. The number of specific figures whose spirits occupy the mengdu can become quite large. The high-ranking shaman Yi Jung-chun knew of twenty-four past holders of his implements, including both kin and non-kin. The mengdu ancestors actively intervene during
14337-458: The ancestors of each set. The mengdu feature prominently in the Sin-gut, an extended sequence of rituals which are held three times in a shaman's life and initiate them into a higher hierarchy of the shamanic priesthood. The first Sin-gut serves as an initiation ritual into shamanism itself. In one of the most important parts of this ceremony, the novice kneels before the altar of the gods while
14514-403: The ancestors themselves, which is beseeched for during the ritual. When a shaman is holding a ritual, there's a something that flashes inside your head. You need to be a shaman to have this feeling... And whether a shaman is competent or not, whether they have sudeok [ritual authority] or not, all depends on whether they can make sound judgments about this [feeling]... When a shaman divines with
14691-440: The atmosphere. The cartridges were stored in stables and the ammonia concentration rose during the hot summer months, thus initiating brittle cracks. The problem was resolved by annealing the cases, and storing the cartridges elsewhere. Other phases than α, β and γ are ε, a hexagonal intermetallic CuZn 3 , and η, a solid solution of copper in zinc. Although forms of brass have been in use since prehistory , its true nature as
14868-653: The average brass key, new or old, exceeded the California Proposition 65 limits by an average factor of 19, assuming handling twice a day. In April 2001 manufacturers agreed to reduce lead content to 1.5%, or face a requirement to warn consumers about lead content. Keys plated with other metals are not affected by the settlement, and may continue to use brass alloys with a higher percentage of lead content. Also in California, lead-free materials must be used for "each component that comes into contact with
15045-414: The blade which tapers to meet the handle is called the "bridge of caution" ( josim-dari ) and stands for the difficult roads by which the girl and her servant cautiously make their way to the Hwanggeum Temple. The spiral marks on the handle symbolize the fingermarks that Noga-danpung-agissi leaves on her wrists after wringing them, either out of despair at her imprisonment or out of panic once she realizes she
15222-401: The brass tub in which Noga-danpung-agissi bathed the triplets as newborns, and therefore symbolizes the maternal and feminine element. The cheonmun (Sino-Korean 天文 "heavenly cash" or 天門 "heavenly gate") is a brass disc resembling a cash coin , 5–6 cm (2.0–2.4 in) wide with a hole in the middle, though some cheonmun lack holes. The hole is thought to represent the moon, while
15399-577: The brass used to construct the instrument bodies, but still workable with simple hand tools—a boon to quick repairs. The mouthpieces of both brass instruments and, less commonly, woodwind instruments are often made of brass among other metals as well. Next to the brass instruments, the most notable use of brass in music is in various percussion instruments , most notably cymbals , gongs , and orchestral (tubular) bells (large "church" bells are normally made of bronze ). Small handbells and " jingle bells " are also commonly made of brass. The harmonica
15576-413: The brass will corrode galvanically; conversely, if brass is in contact with a less-noble metal such as zinc or iron, the less noble metal will corrode and the brass will be protected. To enhance the machinability of brass, lead is often added in concentrations of about 2%. Since lead has a lower melting point than the other constituents of the brass, it tends to migrate towards the grain boundaries in
15753-491: The candlestick was made from a hoard of old coins, probably Late Roman. Latten is a term for medieval alloys of uncertain and often variable composition often covering decorative borders and similar objects cut from sheet metal, whether of brass or bronze. Especially in Tibetan art , analysis of some objects shows very different compositions from different ends of a large piece. Aquamaniles were typically made in brass in both
15930-422: The cementation process was not abandoned, and as late as the early 19th century there are descriptions of solid-state cementation in a domed furnace at around 900–950 °C and lasting up to 10 hours. The European brass industry continued to flourish into the post medieval period buoyed by innovations such as the 16th century introduction of water powered hammers for the production of wares such as pots. By 1559
16107-511: The collective memory and social identity of Jeju Islanders. The trauma and scars of historical events continue to resonate in the cultural consciousness, shaping perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors among Jeju natives. These experiences have contributed to a distinct sense of identity and solidarity among Jeju Islanders, often manifesting in cultural expressions, artistic forms, and community rituals that reflect resilience and resistance against oppression. Religious practices on Jeju Island encompass
16284-407: The dead that the triplets become, but the meaning of daebeonji is unclear. The knives are among the most important ritual items of Jeju shamanism, and folklorist Kim Heonsun notes that "Jeju shamans' faith in the knives is nearly absolute." The knife has two major parts: the brass knife itself, consisting of a blade (11–13 cm (4.3–5.1 in) long, 1.5–2 cm (0.59–0.79 in) wide) and
16461-434: The dense, fine-grained tropical hardwoods traditionally preferred for smaller woodwinds . For the same reason, some low clarinets, bassoons and contrabassoons feature a hybrid construction, with long, straight sections of wood, and curved joints, neck, and/or bell of metal. The use of metal also avoids the risks of exposing wooden instruments to changes in temperature or humidity, which can cause sudden cracking. Even though
16638-414: The details of the interpretations. The blade is shaped with one flat and one rounded side, representing the flat back and rounded belly of the pregnant Noga-danpung-agissi. Serpentine patterns are often etched on the blade, but what these symbolize are disputed by shamans, ranging from the dragons that the nobleman sees in his dream to a snake that the triplets encounter while serving the scholars. The part of
16815-415: The disc as a whole stands for the sun. The Chogong bon-puri explicitly mentions that the cheonmun are made for the triplets by their father, and they thus represent the paternal and masculine element. A sequence of between two and four Chinese characters are inscribed on one side around the hole, while the other side is smooth. Known sequences include: The characters suggest that a shaman is one who knows
16992-690: The distinction between the two alloys has been less consistent and clear, and increasingly museums use the more general term " copper alloy ". Brass has long been a popular material for its bright gold-like appearance and is still used for drawer pulls and doorknobs . It has also been widely used to make sculpture and utensils because of its low melting point, high workability (both with hand tools and with modern turning and milling machines), durability, and electrical and thermal conductivity . Brasses with higher copper content are softer and more golden in colour; conversely those with less copper and thus more zinc are harder and more silvery in colour. Brass
17169-577: The divinatory implements have a number of functions—including serving as props during the reenactment of shamanic narratives—their primary purpose is similar to the knives in that they seek to divine the will of the gods. The most general divinatory method involves the shaman raising and overturning the sandae , then examining whether how many of the sangjan are upside-down and how many of the cheonmun face up on their inscribed side. There are accordingly nine possibilities. The general principles of divination concern openness and closedness. An upright cup and
17346-424: The division and many other issues led to a rebellion on Jeju island on 3 April 1948. The Syngman Rhee regime suppressed the rebellion with mass killings of civilians. As many as 60,000 Jeju Islanders, or a full fifth of the pre-rebellion population, were killed. 40,000 more fled to Japan. Out of the 400 villages of the island, only 170 remained. The devastating impact of the massacres on the Jeju language community
17523-511: The emigration of Jeju Islanders to the mainland, further restricting linguistic contacts between Jeju and Korean. At the same time, the island was also used throughout the Joseon era (1392―1910) as a place of exile for disgraced scholar-officials . These highly educated speakers of Seoul Korean often tutored the children of their Jeju neighbors during their exile and established a continuous and significant Seoul Korean superstratum in Jeju. Under
17700-469: The end of the process presumably to maximize zinc absorption in the final stages. Triangular crucibles were then used to melt the brass for casting . 16th-century technical writers such as Biringuccio , Ercker and Agricola described a variety of cementation brass making techniques and came closer to understanding the true nature of the process noting that copper became heavier as it changed to brass and that it became more golden as additional calamine
17877-446: The end of the process. Dioscorides mentioned that zinc minerals were used for both the working and finishing of brass, perhaps suggesting secondary additions. Brass made during the early Roman period seems to have varied between 20% and 28% wt zinc. The high content of zinc in coinage and brass objects declined after the first century AD and it has been suggested that this reflects zinc loss during recycling and thus an interruption in
18054-524: The family has its roots in Manchuria , a historical region in northeastern Asia. It is thought that Koreanic speakers migrated from southern Manchuria between the third and eighth centuries CE. Linguist Alexander Vovin suggests that the ancient kingdom of Tamna , which ruled the island until the twelfth century, may have spoken a Japonic language that left a substrate influence on Jeju. When exactly this putative Japonic language may have been replaced by
18231-579: The family of red brasses. Gunmetal alloys contain roughly 88% copper, 8–10% tin, and 2–4% zinc. Lead can be added for ease of machining or for bearing alloys. "Naval brass", for use in seawater, contains 40% zinc but also 1% tin. The tin addition suppresses zinc leaching. The NSF International requires brasses with more than 15% zinc, used in piping and plumbing fittings , to be dezincification-resistant. The high malleability and workability, relatively good resistance to corrosion , and traditionally attributed acoustic properties of brass, have made it
18408-450: The family's honor . When the family servant insists that she be killed instead, the parents relent and decide to expel both instead. Her father gives Noga-danpung-agissi a golden fan as she leaves. The two decide to go to the Hwanggeum Temple, encountering various obstacles and crossing many strange bridges on the way. The servant explains the etymology of the bridges, connecting each name to the process of Noga-danpung-agissi's expulsion from
18585-502: The family. They eventually reach the temple and meet the priest, who banishes her to the land of the goddess of childbirth. Alone there, she gives birth to triplets who tear out of her two armpits and her breasts. Having bathed them in a brass tub, she names the three boys Sin-mengdu, Bon-mengdu, and Sara-salchuk Sam-mengdu. The family lives an impoverished life. At the age of eight, the three brothers become manservants of three thousand evil-minded Confucian scholars who are preparing for
18762-553: The fifteenth century and unintelligible to mainland Korean visitors by the sixteenth century. The language was severely undermined by the aftermath of the Jeju uprising of 1948, the Korean War , and the modernization of South Korea . Many fluent speakers remaining in Jeju Island are now over seventy years old. Most people in Jeju Island now speak a variety of Korean with a Jeju substratum . The language may be somewhat more vigorous in
18939-434: The final time, and signifies a sad event in the future. When the rounded sides face away, the resulting configuration is deung-jin-dari , the bridge of turned backs, showing the daughter and her parents turning their backs to each other. It portends a departure or discord. When either position appears when the shaman is inviting the gods into the human world, it means that the gods are unwilling to descend. When they appear when
19116-424: The first rituals with the mengdu , seeking to ascertain if the mengdu ancestors will hold them in favorable regard. The self-made mengdu are divided into two types: implements which are based on an original set, and entirely new implements. The former are identical to the originals from a ritual perspective, to the point of embodying the same specific ancestors. The latter is not preferred by shamans, although it
19293-412: The forge on an auspicious day. An initial ritual is held for the gods of the forge, including Jeon'gyeongnok, the celestial smith who forges the original mengdu in many Chogong bon-puri versions. Once the implements have been forged, they are washed in scented water and wine and dressed with the skirts. A ritual is held to summon the spirits of the ancestors into the new implements. The shaman then holds
19470-626: The form of globules as it cools from casting. The pattern the globules form on the surface of the brass increases the available lead surface area which, in turn, affects the degree of leaching. In addition, cutting operations can smear the lead globules over the surface. These effects can lead to significant lead leaching from brasses of comparatively low lead content. In October 1999, the California State Attorney General sued 13 key manufacturers and distributors over lead content. In laboratory tests, state researchers found
19647-465: The gate. The priest accordingly gives them the first cheonmun , or divination discs, with the Chinese characters 天 "heaven", 地 "earth", and 門 "gate" inscribed. The triplets hold the first shamanic rituals as their father has ordered them to do, aided by Neosameneo-doryeong, the young god of shamanic music. The rituals successfully resurrect their mother. The triplets then summon a master smith from
19824-517: The genealogy and associated ancestors of these mengdu are still remembered, awaiting a new holder. Often, a shaman who desires to have their personal mengdu actively dig them out. In other cases, the final holder may appear in a dream to tell a descendant to dig out their mengdu , or a novice shaman may be led to the grave by divinely inspired intuition ( sin'gi ). Alternately, a shaman without an inheritor may deposit their mengdu above ground, accompanied by rice and cash. Some mengdu are placed on
20001-535: The gods' will depending on how they fall. For this ritual alone, the resulting configurations are named after dragons. The worst configuration is the White Dragon, when all four implements are closed. The three mengdu are both the symbols and the qualifications of a Jeju shaman. Because they constitute "the most basic and essential” tools of shamanic ritual, a novice shaman cannot attract his own clientele of worshippers but must always be bound as an apprentice to
20178-408: The gods, and while physically reenacting shamanic narratives. The sacred brass bell stands for the bell that the priest uses to open the locks on Noga-danpung-agissi's doors. It is referred to as yoryeong seonsaeng heunggeul-jeodae , "bell the master that is shaken". Like the knives, it has two major parts. The bell proper is 5–6 cm (2.0–2.4 in) high and 6–7 cm (2.4–2.8 in) wide at
20355-550: The government-funded Jeju Research Institute has compiled phrasebooks of the language. The provincial Ministry of Education has also published Jeju textbooks for elementary and secondary schools, although some textbooks really teach Standard Korean interspersed with Jeju lexical items. Some public schools offer after-school programs for Jeju, but the short duration of these classes may be insufficient to promote more than "symbolic" use by students. The linguistic competence of many teachers has also been challenged. On 12 August 2011,
20532-774: The increasing popularity of brass in the east and by the 6th–7th centuries AD over 90% of copper alloy artefacts from Egypt were made of brass. However other alloys such as low tin bronze were also used and they vary depending on local cultural attitudes, the purpose of the metal and access to zinc, especially between the Islamic and Byzantine world. Conversely the use of true brass seems to have declined in Western Europe during this period in favor of gunmetals and other mixed alloys but by about 1000 brass artefacts are found in Scandinavian graves in Scotland , brass
20709-479: The informal domain was usually a Korean dialect with a Jeju substratum, rather than the traditional Jeju language: 현재 상용되는 제주말의 경우, 표준말과의 차이가 과거에 비해 크게 줄어들고 있는 상황으로써 특히 어미활용에서 표준말과의 차이가 극대화되며, 다른 부분에서는 상대적으로 표준말과의 차이가 극소화된다는 점이다. 따라서 제주사람들은 과거 사용되던 토박이 말에 가까운 것은 '진한 (심한) 제주말'로, 현재 사용되는 제주말은 '옅은 제주말' 또는 '(표준어와) 섞어진 말'로 표현하는 등, 제주말과 표준말이 일종의 방언 연속체를 형성하는 것으로 인식하고 있다. "As for the Jeju language [ lit. ' Jeju speech ' ] in general use nowadays [as of 1992],
20886-418: The interior and are lidded. They show no signs of slag or metal prills suggesting that zinc minerals were heated to produce zinc vapor which reacted with metallic copper in a solid state reaction . The fabric of these crucibles is porous, probably designed to prevent a buildup of pressure, and many have small holes in the lids which may be designed to release pressure or to add additional zinc minerals near
21063-701: The interior resulting from a liquid process. Some of the most famous objects in African art are the lost wax castings of West Africa, mostly from what is now Nigeria , produced first by the Kingdom of Ife and then the Benin Empire . Though normally described as "bronzes", the Benin Bronzes , now mostly in the British Museum and other Western collections, and the large portrait heads such as
21240-465: The language to be an important part of the island's culture, the vast majority are skeptical of the language's long-term viability, and more people are unwilling than willing to actively participate in language preservation efforts. Revitalization efforts have been ongoing. On 27 September 2007, the Jeju provincial government promulgated the Language Act for the Preservation and Promotion of
21417-479: The language. But significant generational differences in attitudes were also observed. For instance, only 13.8% of Jeju Islanders between 20 and 40 much preferred Jeju over Standard Korean, while 49.1% of those above 80 did. In a 2013 survey of Jeju natives, 77.9% agreed with the statement that "[the Jeju language] has to be passed down as part of Jeju culture." But a 2015 study of approximately 1,000 Jeju Islanders suggests that even though most Jeju Islanders believe
21594-405: The large number of copper-zinc alloys now known suggests that at least some were deliberately manufactured and many have zinc contents of more than 12% wt which would have resulted in a distinctive golden colour. By the 8th–7th century BC Assyrian cuneiform tablets mention the exploitation of the "copper of the mountains" and this may refer to "natural" brass. "Oreikhalkon" (mountain copper),
21771-474: The larger proportion, generally 66% copper and 34% zinc. In use since prehistoric times, it is a substitutional alloy : atoms of the two constituents may replace each other within the same crystal structure. Brass is similar to bronze , a copper alloy that contains tin instead of zinc. Both bronze and brass may include small proportions of a range of other elements including arsenic , lead , phosphorus , aluminium , manganese and silicon . Historically,
21948-400: The lay members of the community are deeply invested in the fate of the village shrine mengdu . In one historical instance, a thief killed the village shaman and stole her mengdu , only for the entire village to rally to retrieve the sacred objects and to punish the criminal. In another case, the village shaman passed away without a clear successor, so that her daughter, who had previously lived
22125-537: The linguistic landscape of Jeju Island as the younger generations within the diaspora communities only spoke Japanese, leading the decline in fluency in Jejueo. Severe disruption to the Jeju language community began after the end of Japanese rule and World War II in 1945. Korea was divided between an American government in the South and a Soviet government in the north , which were succeeded by South Korea and North Korea correspondingly in 1948. Popular opposition to
22302-434: The low degree of regional variation in Jeju shamanism. The mengdu are divided into five types, depending on how they are transferred and acquired across generations. The most common and most ideal type is "inherited mengdu " ( mullin mengdu ), passed down by one shaman to another. Inheritance is ideally to a younger family member, with gender being irrelevant. Adopted children are also considered valid heirs. The family of
22479-456: The mainstream linguistic rules observed in mainland Korean, Jejueo maintains earlier grammatical structures and syntactic patterns that may lead to misunderstandings or confusion during conversations. As of 2018, fluent speakers in Jeju Island were all over seventy years of age, while passive competence was found in some people in their forties and fifties. Younger Islanders speak Korean with Jeju substrate influence found in residual elements of
22656-402: The majority while 45 words were understood by less than 10%. A 2018 study suggests that even the verbal paradigm, among the more resilient parts of the substratum, may be in danger; the average middle schooler was more competent in the verb system of English, a language "taught only a few hours a week in school and in private tutoring institutions," than of Jeju. Historically, the Jeju language
22833-407: The metal. The 13th century Iranian writer al-Kashani describes a more complex process whereby tutiya was mixed with raisins and gently roasted before being added to the surface of the molten metal. A temporary lid was added at this point presumably to minimize the escape of zinc vapor. In Europe a similar liquid process in open-topped crucibles took place which was probably less efficient than
23010-449: The middle of a ceremony as well if they have become too ragged. Discarded strands are ritually burned by an apprentice shaman. The most important function of the knives is to divine the will of the gods. The shaman regularly throws the knives onto the ground during rituals, and the gods are believed to communicate through their relative position. There are six possible positions that the knives can take; these are referred to as "bridges". In
23187-408: The miraculous conception and lives of these gods. The implements play a critical role in ritual; both the knives and the divination implements are used to divine the will of the gods, and the bell is used to invite them into the ritual ground. Every set of mengdu is believed to incarnate the spirits both of the heroes of the Chogong bon-puri, and of the historical human shamans who previously owned
23364-425: The mouth, with a clapper inside. The "skirt" consists of five to seven rolls (55–65 cm (22–26 in) long) of multicolored cloth—often red, green, and blue—which the shaman holds while ringing the bell. The bell is rung when opening the gates of the gods' abode and inviting the gods to the ritual ground, reflecting its role in the myth as an opener of locks. The shaman also rings their bell while dancing, during
23541-399: The objects back. Although now omitted, the initiate traditionally had to answer a series of riddles about shamanic mythology and ritual in order to retrieve their belongings. For instance, senior shamans would arrange their mengdu in a certain configuration and tell the initiate to interpret it in mythological terms. Ultimately, the mengdu and other implements are returned to the initiate in
23718-674: The order of the bell, the divination implements, and the knives. Once the mengdu have been retrieved, the sangjan and cheonmun of the initiate and senior shamans are pooled together. After a ritual dance to a very fast beat, the implements are thrown and the will of the gods divined. The divination is repeated until the results are propitious for the initiate. Jeju language Jeju (Jeju: 제줏말 ; Jeju RR : Jejun-mal , or Korean : 제주어 ; RR : Jeju-eo , or 제주말 ; Jeju-mal ), often called Jejueo or Jejuan in English-language scholarship,
23895-428: The palace where the ritual implements are kept and prays to the triplets, who give her the sacred objects necessary for the shamanic initiation rite. The councilor's daughter is the first truly human shaman, and her receiving the ritual objects represents the first generational transfer of shamanic knowledge. Jeju shamans refer to three types of ritual instruments made of brass—knives, a bell, and divination implements—as
24072-441: The particular set. These spirits are called the " mengdu ancestors", and are thought to intervene during rituals to help the current holder accurately ascertain the will of the gods. The mengdu are conventionally passed down from one generation to another, with the previous holder becoming the newest mengdu ancestor. The implements and the ancestors that embody them are the objects of regular worship and also feature prominently in
24249-412: The patient. Conversely, an upside-down cup and a disc with the smooth side up are considered closed. The gods are unwilling to descend, the worshippers will face misfortune, and both the gods and the spirits of pestilence are willing to leave the human world. The detailed divination outcomes are given below. Many other divinatory methods involve either the sangjan , the cheonmun , or both. In one ritual,
24426-424: The patina layer was formed, it may protect the underlying brass from further damage. Although copper and zinc have a large difference in electrical potential , the resulting brass alloy does not experience internalized galvanic corrosion because of the absence of a corrosive environment within the mixture. However, if brass is placed in contact with a more noble metal such as silver or gold in such an environment,
24603-427: The place of their discovery. Heirless shamans sometimes choose to donate their mengdu to local Buddhist temples. The Buddhist clergy of Jeju are sympathetic to shamanism, and a novice shaman could eventually take them from the temple and put them to use again. Some mengdu are called "village shrine mengdu " ( bonhyang mengdu ) because they are associated with a specific village community. Unlike with other mengdu ,
24780-425: The principles of the cosmos, as represented by heaven and earth or the sun and the moon, and uses this knowledge to help humans, as represented by the gates of their houses. The sandae (Sino-Korean 算臺 "divinatory platform") is a large and rather flat brass vessel, 10–12 cm (3.9–4.7 in) wide at the mouth and 1.5–3 cm (0.59–1.18 in) tall, in which the two cups and two discs are placed. Although
24957-456: The production of high-zinc copper alloys which would have been difficult or impossible to produce using cementation, for use in expensive objects such as scientific instruments , clocks , brass buttons and costume jewelry . However Champion continued to use the cheaper calamine cementation method to produce lower-zinc brass and the archaeological remains of bee-hive shaped cementation furnaces have been identified at his works at Warmley . By
25134-528: The production of new brass. However it is now thought this was probably a deliberate change in composition and overall the use of brass increases over this period making up around 40% of all copper alloys used in the Roman world by the 4th century AD. Little is known about the production of brass during the centuries immediately after the collapse of the Roman Empire . Disruption in the trade of tin for bronze from Western Europe may have contributed to
25311-403: The regional variety. When the same survey was readministered in 2015, 36.8% were very proud of the language, and Jeju Islanders had become the most likely among South Korean dialect groups to have "very positive" opinions of the regional variety. In a 2017 study of 240 Jeju Islanders, 82.8% of those sampled considered Jeju to be "nice to listen to," and 74.9% hoped that their children would learn
25488-434: The religious reverence accorded to the mengdu is unique to Jeju. The origin myth of the mengdu is found in the Chogong bon-puri , a major shamanic narrative in Jeju religion. According to this narrative, the original mengdu were possessed by the eponymous Mengdu triplets, the three deities who were the first to practice shamanic ritual on earth. The stylistic features of mengdu refer back to important events in
25665-463: The rituals to help the current holder accurately ascertain the will of the gods. When Jeju shamans throw their knives or overturn their sandae and look at the resulting configurations, they describe a spontaneous feeling inside their head which allows them to make the correct interpretation of the patterns. This feeling necessitates a deep understanding of the distinctive features of one's mengdu and their associated ancestors, as well as direct aid from
25842-423: The roadside; others in the hills or riverbanks, under a rock, or underwater. When these are rediscovered, they are referred to as "picked-up mengdu " ( bonggeun mengdu ). The rediscovery of a mengdu generally leads to sinbyeong for the discoverer, which may be fatal unless they are initiated as shamans in due time. As the previous holder usually cannot be determined, the new genealogy of the implements begins with
26019-454: The sacred shamanic knives that they will use to bring justice to the scholars. Some time later, the daughter of a state councillor falls seriously ill every ten years: at the age of seven, seventeen, twenty-seven and so forth. At the age of seventy-seven, she realizes that she is sick with sinbyeong , a disease sent down by the gods and cured only by initiation into shamanism. However, there are no ritual devices that she can use. She goes to
26196-426: The sacred tools are all stored in one large cabinet, the mengdu are placed in the uppermost compartment, together with candles, incense and incense burners, rice bowls, threads of cloth, fruits, a supplementary tool used in divination called barang , and any sacred objects that a shaman might personally possess. The shelf, cupboard or other location where the sacred objects are placed is called dangju . It stands as
26373-493: The senior shamans hide the implements under the altar for the gods of death. The apprentice shamans then wake up the initiate, saying that there is a ritual to attend to. Finding everything gone, they vainly attempt to make fake mengdu . Segyeong , the goddess of earth and agriculture, eventually informs them that the triplets have confiscated the shaman's mengdu to punish them for their misdeeds. The shaman repents, and Segyeong convinces Noga-danpung-agissi to tell her sons to send
26550-444: The shaman is sending the gods back to their abode, they are taken as an auspicious sign meaning that the gods are willing to leave. Oen-jabu-dari , the position in which both rounded sides face left, is a positive sign that the gods were originally not planning to grant blessings, but have decided otherwise due to sympathy for the worshippers upon attending the ritual. It is the symbol of Noga-danpung-agissi's father giving his daughter
26727-476: The shaman shakes the cups and discs in a sieve instead of the sandae , and then throws it into his wife's skirt. In another ritual held for divers, the shaman crawls across the sandbar with the sangjan and cheonmun inside his mouth, reenacting the Dragon King , the god of the sea, who has pearls in his mouth. Once the shaman has reached the worshippers, they spit out the implements onto the earth and divine
26904-417: The shared mythical origin of the Chogong bon-puri but also commemorating real historical individuals, the recitation of mengdu genealogies and worship of mengdu ancestors create a sense of solidarity and community among the shamans of Jeju Island. Despite differences in rank and ability, all shamans are bound together by being symbolic descendants of the same mengdu ancestors. This may have contributed to
27081-449: The situation is that its differences from Standard Korean are greatly diminishing compared to the past. Its greatest differences with Standard Korean [now] lie especially in the suffix paradigm, and in other areas the differences are being minimized. The Jeju people accordingly understand that Jeju and Standard Korean are in a form of dialect continuum , and refer to the native language formerly in use as "thick (or intense) Jeju language" and
27258-477: The symbol of the palace in which the triplets place their ritual implements, and which is guarded by Noga-danpung-agissi and Neosame-neodoryeong. It is adorned by paper representations of the gods, including the yuk-gobi , works of paper and bamboo which represent each of the Mengdu and the Neosameneo-doryeong triplets. The yuk-gobi are hung under the representations of the childbirth goddess, as it
27435-474: The tenth ritual of the Great Gut , the most sacred sequence of rituals in Jeju shamanism. The Chogong bon-puri is the origin myth of Jeju shamanic religion as a whole, to the point that shamans honor the myth as the "root of the gods" and respond that "it was done that way in the Chogong bon-puri " when asked about the origin of a certain ritual. It is therefore to be expected that objects as important as
27612-403: The term "Jeju dialect" ( 제주방언 ; Jeju bang-eon ). While the term "Jeju language" ( 제주어 ; Jeju-eo ) was first used in 1947, it was not until the mid-1990s that the term gained traction. The majority of South Korean academic publications switched to using "Jeju language" by the early 2010s. Since somewhat earlier, "Jeju language" has also been the term preferred in local law, such as
27789-476: The theory and practice of brassmaking in Europe. By the 15th century there is evidence for the renewed use of lidded cementation crucibles at Zwickau in Germany. These large crucibles were capable of producing c.20 kg of brass. There are traces of slag and pieces of metal on the interior. Their irregular composition suggests that this was a lower temperature, not entirely liquid, process. The crucible lids had small holes which were blocked with clay plugs near
27966-409: The traditional village community where Jeju had thrived. The language came to be perceived as an incorrect dialect of Korean; students were even subject to corporal punishment if they used it in school. Standard Korean became more commonplace in private settings even outside of Jeju City . The language attitude of native Jeju speakers in this period was self-disparaging, and even Jeju people regarded
28143-505: The triplets' blessing, the novice is given the mengdu , the sacred drums , and the ritual robes, and is formally initiated. The mengdu are at the center of the Gobun-mengdu ("hidden mengdu "), another important component of the Sin-gut held some time after the initiation. The Gobun-mengdu takes the form of ritual theater. The newly initiated shaman takes a nap, muttering that nobody would dare steal his ritual implements. Meanwhile,
28320-442: The type and concentration of pathogens and the medium they are in, brass kills these microorganisms within a few minutes to hours of contact. A large number of independent studies confirm this antimicrobial effect, even against antibiotic-resistant bacteria such as MRSA and VRSA. The mechanisms of antimicrobial action by copper and its alloys, including brass, are a subject of intense and ongoing investigation. Brass
28497-523: The underlying morphology generally takes precedence over the surface form . The two orthographies differ largely because they are based on different morphological analyses of the language, especially of the verbal paradigm, as seen in the example below. 나끄- nakkeu- 나끄- nakkeu- "to fish" Brass Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc , in proportions which can be varied to achieve different colours and mechanical, electrical, acoustic and chemical properties, but copper typically has
28674-417: The use of Jeju "with contempt." A 1981 survey of language attitudes among high school and university students natively speaking Seoul Korean, Chungcheong Korean , Southwestern Korean , Southeastern Korean , and Jeju showed that Jeju speakers were the most likely among the five groups to ascribe negative traits to their native variety. A 1992 study of code-switching by native Jeju speakers shows that Jeju
28851-568: The usual metal of choice for construction of musical instruments whose acoustic resonators consist of long, relatively narrow tubing, often folded or coiled for compactness; silver and its alloys, and even gold , have been used for the same reasons, but brass is the most economical choice. Collectively known as brass instruments , or simply 'the brass', these include the trombone , tuba , trumpet , cornet , flugelhorn , baritone horn , euphonium , tenor horn , and French horn , and many other " horns ", many in variously sized families, such as
29028-525: The wetted surface of pipes and pipe fittings, plumbing fittings and fixtures". On 1 January 2010, the maximum amount of lead in "lead-free brass" in California was reduced from 4% to 0.25% lead. Dezincification-resistant ( DZR or DR) brasses, sometimes referred to as CR ( corrosion resistant) brasses, are used where there is a large corrosion risk and where normal brasses do not meet the requirements. Applications with high water temperatures, chlorides present or deviating water qualities ( soft water ) play
29205-409: The zinc loss. "Red brasses", a family of alloys with high copper proportion and generally less than 15% zinc, are more resistant to zinc loss. One of the metals called "red brass" is 85% copper, 5% tin, 5% lead, and 5% zinc. Copper alloy C23000, which is also known as "red brass", contains 84–86% copper, 0.05% each iron and lead, with the balance being zinc. Another such material is gunmetal , from
29382-531: Was added. Zinc metal was also becoming more commonplace. By 1513 metallic zinc ingots from India and China were arriving in London and pellets of zinc condensed in furnace flues at the Rammelsberg in Germany were exploited for cementation brass making from around 1550. Eventually it was discovered that metallic zinc could be alloyed with copper to make brass, a process known as speltering, and by 1657
29559-515: Was already unintelligible to mainland Koreans. Kim Sang-heon (1570―1652), who from 1601 to 1602 served as the island's pacification commissioner, gives six words in the "provincial language" with clear cognates in modern Jeju and also writes: 謫人 申長齡 乃譯官也 嘗曰 「比島語音 酷以中華 如驅牛馬之聲 尤不可分辯云云 盖風氣與華不隔而然耶 曾爲元朝所據置官於此故與華相雜而然耶」... 所謂俚語者 但高細不可曉 "The exiled man Shin Jangnyeong was originally a government interpreter . He said, 'The language of this island
29736-454: Was being deliberately produced from metallic copper and zinc minerals using the cementation process, the product of which was calamine brass , and variations on this method continued until the mid-19th century. It was eventually replaced by speltering , the direct alloying of copper and zinc metal which was introduced to Europe in the 16th century. Brass has sometimes historically been referred to as "yellow copper". In West Asia and
29913-733: Was being used in the manufacture of coins in Northumbria and there is archaeological and historical evidence for the production of calamine brass in Germany and the Low Countries , areas rich in calamine ore. These places would remain important centres of brass making throughout the Middle Ages period, especially Dinant . Brass objects are still collectively known as dinanderie in French. The baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège in modern Belgium (before 1117)
30090-481: Was by then in an unfavorable diglossic relationship with Korean, and was largely restricted to informal contexts even between Jeju natives. Within a primarily Jeju conversation, Standard Korean was used to emphasize the rationality or truth value of statements. Switching to Jeju in a primarily Standard Korean conversation signified that the speaker was making a subjective statement or being less serious. The same study notes that by 1992, even this variety restricted to
30267-501: Was developed, including a glossary, as well as a collection of proverbs, poems, and quizzes in Jeju Language. Finally, an introductory conversation brochure was distributed to both citizens and visitors of Jeju Island. The Jeju Language Preservation Society, founded in December 2008, publishes a bimonthly Jeju-language magazine Deongdeureong-makke ( 덩드렁마께 ) and holds Jeju teaching programs and speaking contests. Children's books and
30444-640: Was exacerbated by the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. While Jeju was never occupied by the North Korean army, nearly 150,000 Korean-speaking refugees from the mainland fleeing North Korean invasion arrived in Jeju in the first year of the war. The above events shattered the Jeju language's former dominance on the island, and Standard Korean began to displace Jeju in the public sphere by the 1950s. The 1970s Saemaeul Undong , an ambitious rural modernization program launched by Park Chung Hee , disrupted
30621-418: Was in her land that the triplets could be born. The mengdu sometimes break or shatter, especially because they are regularly thrown, and must be reforged. Often, inheritance leads to one shaman possessing multiple mengdu , all of whose ancestors must be served. Shamans distinguish between their multiple mengdu sets, using some sets for particular rituals and another set for others. A large number of mengdu
30798-671: Was produced by the cementation process where copper and zinc ore are heated together until zinc vapor is produced which reacts with the copper. There is good archaeological evidence for this process and crucibles used to produce brass by cementation have been found on Roman period sites including Xanten and Nidda in Germany , Lyon in France and at a number of sites in Britain. They vary in size from tiny acorn sized to large amphorae like vessels but all have elevated levels of zinc on
30975-421: Was seen as impolite or uncultured. Jeju uses fewer honorifics and has four levels of politeness, in comparison to the seven levels in Standard Korean. Because of the linguistic differences and cultural differences, Jeju Islanders were marginalized and excluded among mainland Koreans. In a 2011 Korea Times article, a student said they believed the language was not respectful enough to use with professors, and that
31152-627: Was traditionally spoken throughout Jeju Province except in the Chuja Islands , halfway between Jeju Island and mainland Korea, where a variety of Southwestern Korean is found. The language is also used by some of the first- and second-generation members of the Zainichi Korean community in Ikuno-ku , Osaka , Japan. Compared to mainland Korean dialect groups, there is little internal variation within Jeju. A distinction between
31329-482: Was widely used. The compositions of these early "brass" objects are highly variable and most have zinc contents of between 5% and 15% wt which is lower than in brass produced by cementation. These may be "natural alloys" manufactured by smelting zinc rich copper ores in redox conditions. Many have similar tin contents to contemporary bronze artefacts and it is possible that some copper-zinc alloys were accidental and perhaps not even distinguished from copper. However
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