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56-458: The materials ground by millers are often foodstuffs and particularly grain . The physical grinding of the food allows for the easier digestion of its nutrients and saves wear on the teeth. Non-food substances needed in a fine, powdered form, such as building materials , may be processed by a miller. The most basic tool for a miller was the quern-stone —simply a large, fixed stone as a base and another movable stone operated by hand, similar to

112-548: A mortar and pestle . As technology and millstones (the bedstone and rynd ) improved, more elaborate machines such as watermills and windmills were developed to do the grinding work. These mills harnessed available energy sources including animal, water, wind, and electrical power. Mills are some of the oldest factories in human history, so factories making other items are sometimes known as mills, for example, cotton mills and steel mills . These factory workers are also called millers. The rynd in pre-reformation Scotland

168-415: A complex dish or meal can be approximated by adding the energy contents of its components. The first determinations of the energy content of food were made by burning a dried sample in a bomb calorimeter and measuring the temperature change in the water surrounding the apparatus, a method known as direct calorimetry . However, the direct calorimetric method generally overestimates the actual energy that

224-743: A diverse range of species from annelids to elephants, chimpanzees and many birds. About 182 fish consume seeds or fruit. Animals (domesticated and wild) use as many types of grasses that have adapted to different locations as their main source of nutrients. Humans eat thousands of plant species; there may be as many as 75,000 edible species of angiosperms , of which perhaps 7,000 are often eaten. Plants can be processed into breads, pasta, cereals, juices and jams or raw ingredients such as sugar, herbs, spices and oils can be extracted. Oilseeds are pressed to produce rich oils – ⁣ sunflower , flaxseed , rapeseed (including canola oil ) and sesame . Many plants and animals have coevolved in such

280-474: A golden thumb" refers to the profit the miller makes as a result of this skill. The shape of a miller's thumb is said to have the appearance of the head of a fish. The European bullhead ( Cottus gobio ), a freshwater fish, is commonly called a miller's thumb for this reason. Miller (also known as Millar) is a common surname derived from the old English surname Milleiir . The name, and its many other variants, can be found widely across Europe in countries like

336-583: A high protein, fibre, vitamin E and B content. Seeds are a good source of food for animals because they are abundant and contain fibre and healthful fats, such as omega-3 fats . Complicated chemical interactions can enhance or depress bioavailability of certain nutrients. Phytates can prevent the release of some sugars and vitamins. Animals that only eat plants are called herbivores , with those that mostly just eat fruits known as frugivores , leaves, while shoot eaters are folivores (pandas) and wood eaters termed xylophages (termites). Frugivores include

392-439: A manufacturer of rowing equipment shows calories released from "burning" food as four times the actual mechanical work, plus 1,300 kJ (300 kcal) per hour, which amounts to about 20% efficiency at 250 watts of mechanical output. It can take up to 20 hours of little physical output (e.g., walking) to "burn off" 17,000 kJ (4,000 kcal) more than a body would otherwise consume. For reference, each kilogram of body fat

448-678: A million. Herbivores generally have more than carnivores as they need to tell which plants may be poisonous. Not all mammals share the same tastes: some rodents can taste starch , cats cannot taste sweetness, and several carnivores (including hyenas , dolphins, and sea lions) have lost the ability to sense up to four of the five taste modalities found in humans. Food is broken into nutrient components through digestive process. Proper digestion consists of mechanical processes ( chewing , peristalsis ) and chemical processes ( digestive enzymes and microorganisms ). The digestive systems of herbivores and carnivores are very different as plant matter

504-443: A similar table. Other components of the human diet are either noncaloric, or are usually consumed in such small amounts that they can be neglected. The food energy actually obtained by respiration is used by the human body for a wide range of purposes, including basal metabolism of various organs and tissues, maintaining the internal body temperature , and exerting muscular force to maintain posture and produce motion. About 20%

560-546: A source of food for protozoa, who in turn provide a source of food for other organisms such as small invertebrates. Other organisms that feed on bacteria include nematodes, fan worms, shellfish and a species of snail. In the marine environment, plankton (which includes bacteria , archaea , algae , protozoa and microscopic fungi ) provide a crucial source of food to many small and large aquatic organisms. Without bacteria, life would scarcely exist because bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into nutritious ammonia . Ammonia

616-425: A system with nineteen food classifications: cereals, roots, pulses and nuts, milk, eggs, fish and shellfish, meat, insects, vegetables, fruits, fats and oils, sweets and sugars, spices and condiments, beverages, foods for nutritional uses, food additives, composite dishes and savoury snacks. In a given ecosystem, food forms a web of interlocking chains with primary producers at the bottom and apex predators at

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672-456: A way that the fruit is a good source of nutrition to the animal who then excretes the seeds some distance away, allowing greater dispersal. Even seed predation can be mutually beneficial, as some seeds can survive the digestion process. Insects are major eaters of seeds, with ants being the only real seed dispersers. Birds, although being major dispersers, only rarely eat seeds as a source of food and can be identified by their thick beak that

728-457: Is chemical energy that animals (including humans ) derive from their food to sustain their metabolism , including their muscular activity. Most animals derive most of their energy from aerobic respiration , namely combining the carbohydrates , fats , and proteins with oxygen from air or dissolved in water . Other smaller components of the diet, such as organic acids , polyols , and ethanol (drinking alcohol) may contribute to

784-447: Is a fruit if the part eaten is derived from the reproductive tissue , so seeds, nuts and grains are technically fruit. From a culinary perspective, fruits are generally considered the remains of botanically described fruits after grains, nuts, seeds and fruits used as vegetables are removed. Grains can be defined as seeds that humans eat or harvest, with cereal grains (oats, wheat, rice, corn, barley, rye, sorghum and millet) belonging to

840-696: Is a sensation considered unpleasant characterised by having a sharp, pungent taste. Unsweetened dark chocolate, caffeine , lemon rind, and some types of fruit are known to be bitter. Umami, commonly described as savory, is a marker of proteins and characteristic of broths and cooked meats. Foods that have a strong umami flavor include cheese, meat and mushrooms. While most animals taste buds are located in their mouth, some insects taste receptors are located on their legs and some fish have taste buds along their entire body. Dogs, cats and birds have relatively few taste buds (chickens have about 30), adult humans have between 2000 and 4000, while catfish can have more than

896-402: Is caused by acids , such as vinegar in alcoholic beverages. Sour foods include citrus, specifically lemons and limes . Sour is evolutionarily significant as it can signal a food that may have gone rancid due to bacteria. Saltiness is the taste of alkali metal ions such as sodium and potassium. It is found in almost every food in low to moderate proportions to enhance flavor. Bitter taste

952-731: Is drunk or processed into dairy products (cheese, butter, etc.). Eggs laid by birds and other animals are eaten and bees produce honey , a reduced nectar from flowers that is used as a popular sweetener in many cultures. Some cultures consume blood , such as in blood sausage , as a thickener for sauces, or in a cured , salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as jugged hare . Animals, specifically humans, typically have five different types of tastes: sweet , sour , salty , bitter , and umami . The differing tastes are important for distinguishing between foods that are nutritionally beneficial and those which may contain harmful toxins. As animals have evolved ,

1008-473: Is equivalent to walking around 2.5 to 5 km ( 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 to 3 mi) per day in addition to the activities of sedentary living. These estimates are for a "reference woman" who is 1.63 m (5 ft 4 in) tall and weighs 57 kg (126 lb) and a "reference man" who is 1.78 m (5 ft 10 in) tall and weighs 70 kg (154 lb). Because caloric requirements vary by height, activity, age, pregnancy status, and other factors,

1064-502: Is harder to digest. Carnivores mouths are designed for tearing and biting compared to the grinding action found in herbivores. Herbivores however have comparatively longer digestive tracts and larger stomachs to aid in digesting the cellulose in plants. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 600 million people worldwide get sick and 420,000 die each year from eating contaminated food. Diarrhea

1120-406: Is mainly composed of water, lipids , proteins , and carbohydrates . Minerals (e.g., salts) and organic substances (e.g., vitamins ) can also be found in food. Plants, algae , and some microorganisms use photosynthesis to make some of their own nutrients. Water is found in many foods and has been defined as a food by itself. Water and fiber have low energy densities, or calories , while fat

1176-517: Is roughly equivalent to 32,300 kilojoules of food energy (i.e., 3,500 kilocalories per pound or 7,700 kilocalories per kilogram). Many countries and health organizations have published recommendations for healthy levels of daily intake of food energy. For example, the United States government estimates 8,400 and 10,900 kJ (2,000 and 2,600 kcal) needed for women and men, respectively, between ages 26 and 45, whose total physical activity

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1232-506: Is the most common illness caused by consuming contaminated food, with about 550 million cases and 230,000 deaths from diarrhea each year. Children under five years of age account for 40% of the burden of foodborne illness, with 125,000 deaths each year. A 2003 World Health Organization (WHO) report concluded that about 30% of reported food poisoning outbreaks in the WHO European Region occur in private homes. According to

1288-738: Is the most energy-dense component. Some inorganic (non-food) elements are also essential for plant and animal functioning. Human food can be classified in various ways, either by related content or by how it is processed. The number and composition of food groups can vary. Most systems include four basic groups that describe their origin and relative nutritional function: Vegetables and Fruit, Cereals and Bread, Dairy, and Meat. Studies that look into diet quality group food into whole grains/cereals, refined grains/cereals, vegetables, fruits, nuts, legumes, eggs, dairy products, fish, red meat, processed meat, and sugar-sweetened beverages. The Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization use

1344-565: Is the precursor to proteins, nucleic acids, and most vitamins. Since the advent of industrial process for nitrogen fixation, the Haber-Bosch Process , the majority of ammonia in the world is human-made. Plants as a food source are divided into seeds, fruits, vegetables, legumes, grains and nuts. Where plants fall within these categories can vary, with botanically described fruits such as the tomato, squash, pepper and eggplant or seeds like peas commonly considered vegetables. Food

1400-460: Is the result of about 40% efficiency of generating ATP from the respiration of food, losses in converting energy from ATP into mechanical work inside the muscle, and mechanical losses inside the body. The latter two losses are dependent on the type of exercise and the type of muscle fibers being used (fast-twitch or slow-twitch). For an overall efficiency of 20%, one watt of mechanical power is equivalent to 18 kJ/h (4.3 kcal/h). For example,

1456-402: Is then released, and the glucose stored as an energy reserve. Photosynthetic plants, algae and certain bacteria often represent the lowest point of the food chains, making photosynthesis the primary source of energy and food for nearly all life on earth. Plants also absorb important nutrients and minerals from the air, natural waters, and soil. Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are absorbed from

1512-447: Is used for brain metabolism. The conversion efficiency of energy from respiration into muscular (physical) power depends on the type of food and on the type of physical energy usage (e.g., which muscles are used, whether the muscle is used aerobically or anaerobically ). In general, the efficiency of muscles is rather low: only 18 to 26% of the energy available from respiration is converted into mechanical energy. This low efficiency

1568-406: Is used to crack open the seed coat. Mammals eat a more diverse range of seeds, as they are able to crush harder and larger seeds with their teeth. Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly. This includes meat, eggs, shellfish and dairy products like milk and cheese. They are an important source of protein and are considered complete proteins for human consumption as they contain all

1624-785: The International Association for Food Protection , the World Resources Institute , the World Food Programme , the Food and Agriculture Organization , and the International Food Information Council . Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support and energy to an organism . It can be raw, processed, or formulated and is consumed orally by animals for growth, health, or pleasure. Food

1680-750: The Poaceae (grass) family and pulses coming from the Fabaceae (legume) family. Whole grains are foods that contain all the elements of the original seed (bran, germ, and endosperm ). Nuts are dry fruits, distinguishable by their woody shell. Fleshy fruits (distinguishable from dry fruits like grain, seeds and nuts) can be further classified as stone fruits (cherries and peaches), pome fruits (apples, pears), berries (blackberry, strawberry), citrus (oranges, lemon), melons (watermelon, cantaloupe), Mediterranean fruits (grapes, fig), tropical fruits (banana, pineapple). Vegetables refer to any other part of

1736-467: The metric (SI) unit of energy, the joule (J), and its multiple the kilojoule (kJ); or in the traditional unit of heat energy, the calorie (cal). In nutritional contexts, the latter is often (especially in US) the "large" variant of the unit, also written "Calorie" (with symbol Cal, both with capital "C") or "kilocalorie" (kcal), and equivalent to 4184 J or 4.184 kJ. Thus, for example, fats and ethanol have

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1792-608: The EU regulations and UK regulations, are: (1) Some polyols, like erythritol , are not digested and should be excluded from the count. (2) This entry exists in the EU regulations of 2008, but not in the UK regulations, according to which fibre shall not be counted. More detailed tables for specific foods have been published by many organizations, such as the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization also has published

1848-537: The UK, Ireland, and many other countries across the world. Foodstuff Food is any substance consumed by an organism for nutritional support. Food is usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin and contains essential nutrients such as carbohydrates , fats , proteins , vitamins , or minerals . The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Different species of animals have different feeding behaviours that satisfy

1904-620: The USDA created the DRI Calculator for Healthcare Professionals in order to determine individual caloric needs. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations , the average minimum energy requirement per person per day is about 7,500 kJ (1,800 kcal). Although the U.S. has changed over time with a growth in population and processed foods or food in general, Americans today have available roughly

1960-508: The WHO and CDC , in the USA alone, annually, there are 76 million cases of foodborne illness leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths. From 2011 to 2016, on average, there were 668,673 cases of foodborne illness and 21 deaths each year. In addition, during this period, 1,007 food poisoning outbreaks with 30,395 cases of food poisoning were reported. Food energy Food energy

2016-607: The air or water and are the basic nutrients needed for plant survival. The three main nutrients absorbed from the soil for plant growth are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, with other important nutrients including calcium, sulfur, magnesium, iron boron, chlorine, manganese, zinc, copper molybdenum and nickel. Bacteria and other microorganisms also form the lower rungs of the food chain. They obtain their energy from photosynthesis or by breaking down dead organisms, waste or chemical compounds. Some form symbiotic relationships with other organisms to obtain their nutrients. Bacteria provide

2072-440: The apex predators, the animals that have no known predators in its ecosystem. Humans are considered apex predators. Humans are omnivores, finding sustenance in vegetables, fruits, cooked meat, milk, eggs, mushrooms and seaweed. Cereal grain is a staple food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn (maize) , wheat, and rice account for 87% of all grain production worldwide. Just over half of

2128-541: The average daily energy intake of 8,800 kJ (2,100 kcal). The minimum food energy intake is also higher in cold environments. Increased mental activity has been linked with moderately increased brain energy consumption . Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, to help consumers control their energy intake. To facilitate evaluation by consumers, food energy values (and other nutritional properties) in package labels or tables are often quoted for convenient amounts of

2184-450: The body can obtain from the food, because it also counts the energy contents of dietary fiber and other indigestible components, and does not allow for partial absorption and/or incomplete metabolism of certain substances. For this reason, today the energy content of food is instead obtained indirectly, by using chemical analysis to determine the amount of each digestible dietary component (such as protein, carbohydrates, and fats), and adding

2240-429: The body. For example, leucine plays an important role in the regulation of protein metabolism and suppresses an individual's appetite. Small amounts of essential fatty acids , constituents of some fats that cannot be synthesized by the human body, are used (and necessary) for other biochemical processes. The approximate food energy contents of various human diet components, to be used in package labeling according to

2296-419: The city of Ivrea , Italy , commemorates a spirited "Mugnaia" (miller's daughter) who supposedly refused to let a local duke exercise his right of the first night , and proceeded to chop the duke's head off and spark a revolution. Whatever the historical validity of the story, it is significant it was the daughter of a miller to whom folk tradition assigned this rebellious role. As an important part of his job,

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2352-493: The dry weight of food. Ruminants can extract food energy from the respiration of cellulose because of bacteria in their rumens that decompose it into digestible carbohydrates. Other minor components of the human diet that contribute to its energy content are organic acids such as citric and tartaric , and polyols such as glycerol , xylitol , inositol , and sorbitol . Some nutrients have regulatory roles affected by cell signaling , in addition to providing energy for

2408-409: The energy input. Some diet components that provide little or no food energy, such as water , minerals , vitamins , cholesterol , and fiber , may still be necessary to health and survival for other reasons. Some organisms have instead anaerobic respiration , which extracts energy from food by reactions that do not require oxygen. The energy contents of a given mass of food is usually expressed in

2464-567: The essential amino acids that the human body needs. One 4-ounce (110 g) steak, chicken breast or pork chop contains about 30 grams of protein. One large egg has 7 grams of protein. A 4-ounce (110 g) serving of cheese has about 15 grams of protein. And 1 cup of milk has about 8 grams of protein. Other nutrients found in animal products include calories, fat, essential vitamins (including B12) and minerals (including zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium). Food products produced by animals include milk produced by mammary glands , which in many cultures

2520-447: The food and agricultural systems are one of the major contributors to climate change , accounting for as much as 37% of total greenhouse gas emissions . The food system has significant impacts on a wide range of other social and political issues, including sustainability , biological diversity , economics , population growth , water supply , and food security . Food safety and security are monitored by international agencies like

2576-550: The form of starch, fructose, glucose and other sugars. Most vitamins are found from plant sources, with exceptions of vitamin D and vitamin B 12 . Minerals can also be plentiful or not. Fruit can consist of up to 90% water, contain high levels of simple sugars that contribute to their sweet taste, and have a high vitamin C content. Compared to fleshy fruit (excepting Bananas) vegetables are high in starch, potassium , dietary fiber, folate and vitamins and low in fat and calories. Grains are more starch based and nuts have

2632-871: The greatest amount of food energy per unit mass, 37 and 29 kJ/g (9 and 7 kcal/g), respectively. Proteins and most carbohydrates have about 17 kJ/g (4 kcal/g), though there are differences between different kinds. For example, the values for glucose, sucrose, and starch are 15.57, 16.48 and 17.48 kilojoules per gram (3.72, 3.94 and 4.18 kcal/g) respectively. The differing energy density of foods (fat, alcohols, carbohydrates and proteins) lies mainly in their varying proportions of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates that are not easily absorbed, such as fibre, or lactose in lactose-intolerant individuals , contribute less food energy. Polyols (including sugar alcohols ) and organic acids contribute 10 kJ/g (2.4 kcal/g) and 13 kJ/g (3.1 kcal/g) respectively. The energy contents of

2688-411: The miller repeatedly takes into his hand samples of the ground meal coming out of the spout in order to feel the quality and character of the product. The miller rubs the grain between his thumb and forefinger. After years of doing this, the miller's thumb changes shape and becomes broad and flattened. This is known as a "miller's thumb". Sayings such as "worth a millerˈs thumb" and "an honest miller hath

2744-614: The needs of their metabolisms and have evolved to fill a specific ecological niche within specific geographical contexts. Omnivorous humans are highly adaptable and have adapted to obtain food in many different ecosystems. Humans generally use cooking to prepare food for consumption. The majority of the food energy required is supplied by the industrial food industry , which produces food through intensive agriculture and distributes it through complex food processing and food distribution systems. This system of conventional agriculture relies heavily on fossil fuels , which means that

2800-413: The plant that can be eaten, including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, bark or the entire plant itself. These include root vegetables (potatoes and carrots), bulbs (onion family), flowers (cauliflower and broccoli), leaf vegetables ( spinach and lettuce) and stem vegetables (celery and asparagus ). The carbohydrate, protein and lipid content of plants is highly variable. Carbohydrates are mainly in

2856-853: The respective food energy contents, previously obtained by measurement of metabolic heat released by the body. In particular, the fibre content is excluded. This method is known as the Modified Atwater system, after Wilbur Atwater who pioneered these measurements in the late 19th century. The system was later improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the USDA , who derived a system whereby specific calorie conversion factors for different foods were proposed. The typical human diet consists chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water, ethanol, and indigestible components such as bones , seeds , and fibre (mostly cellulose ). Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins typically comprise ninety percent of

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2912-425: The same level of calories as the older generation. [1] Older people and those with sedentary lifestyles require less energy; children and physically active people require more. Recognizing these factors, Australia's National Health and Medical Research Council recommends different daily energy intakes for each age and gender group. Notwithstanding, nutrition labels on Australian food products typically recommend

2968-448: The tastes that provide the most energy are the most pleasant to eat while others are not enjoyable, although humans in particular can acquire a preference for some substances which are initially unenjoyable. Water, while important for survival, has no taste. Sweetness is almost always caused by a type of simple sugar such as glucose or fructose , or disaccharides such as sucrose , a molecule combining glucose and fructose. Sourness

3024-523: The top. Other aspects of the web include detrovores (that eat detritis ) and decomposers (that break down dead organisms). Primary producers include algae, plants, bacteria and protists that acquire their energy from sunlight. Primary consumers are the herbivores that consume the plants, and secondary consumers are the carnivores that consume those herbivores. Some organisms, including most mammals and birds, diet consists of both animals and plants, and they are considered omnivores. The chain ends with

3080-403: The world's crops are used to feed humans (55 percent), with 36 percent grown as animal feed and 9 percent for biofuels . Fungi and bacteria are also used in the preparation of fermented foods like bread , wine , cheese and yogurt . During photosynthesis , energy from the sun is absorbed and used to transform water and carbon dioxide in the air or soil into oxygen and glucose. The oxygen

3136-451: Was often carved on millers' gravestones as a symbol of their trade. In a traditional rural society, a miller is often wealthier than ordinary peasants, which can lead to jealousy. Millers are often accused of associating with thieves, and were targeted in bread riots at times of famine . Conversely, millers might be in a stronger position vis-a-vis feudal land owners than are ordinary peasants. The traditional carnival held annually in

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