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55-415: A mug shot or mugshot (an informal term for police photograph or booking photograph ) is a photographic portrait of a person from the shoulders up, typically taken after a person is placed under arrest. The primary purpose of the mug shot is to allow law enforcement to have a photographic record of an arrested individual to allow for identification by victims, the public and investigators. However, in

110-430: A true negative ). They are also known in medicine as a false positive (or false negative ) diagnosis , and in statistical classification as a false positive (or false negative ) error . In statistical hypothesis testing , the analogous concepts are known as type I and type II errors , where a positive result corresponds to rejecting the null hypothesis , and a negative result corresponds to not rejecting

165-474: A prime lens will be used, both because the zoom is not necessary for posed shots (and primes are lighter, cheaper, faster, and higher quality), and because zoom lenses can introduce highly unflattering geometric distortion (barrel distortion or pincushion distortion). However, zoom lenses may be used, particularly in candid shots or to encourage creative framing. Portrait lenses are often relatively inexpensive, because they can be built simply, and are close to

220-557: A camera lens, etc. Modifiers can be collapsible and portable and/or rigid and stationary. Windows as a source of light for portraits have been used for decades before artificial sources of light were discovered. According to Arthur Hammond, amateur and professional photographers need only two things to light a portrait: a window and a reflector. Although window light limits options in portrait photography compared to artificial lights it gives ample room for experimentation for amateur photographers. A white reflector placed to reflect light into

275-523: A cultural rite of passage in the United States, representing a momentous achievement in a young person's life and serving as a tangible reminder of their high school years for years to come. Formal senior portraits date back at least to the 1880s in America. Some traditional senior portrait sittings include a cap and gown and other changes of clothing, portrait styles and poses. In some schools

330-451: A defendant's mug shot is 'laden for characterizing the defendant as a careerist in crime ' ". Other states have similar rules. For example, Illinois specifies that all mugshots and booking information should be redacted. A mug book is a collection of photographs of criminals, typically in mug shots taken at the time of an arrest. A mug book is used by an eyewitness to a crime, with the assistance of law enforcement, in an effort to identify

385-643: A face used for any reason. A typical mug shot is two-part, with one side-view photo, and one front-view. The background is usually plain to avoid distraction from the head. Mug shots may be compiled into a mug book in order to determine the identity of a criminal. In high-profile cases, mug shots may also be published in the mass media . The earliest photos of prisoners taken for use by law enforcement may have been taken in Belgium in 1843 and 1844. In Australia, police in Sydney were photographing criminals by 1846. In

440-450: A fill light is to combat strong shadows created by the main light. Intensity of the fill light may be equal to the main light to eliminate shadows completely, or less intense to simply lessen shadows. Sometimes, the purpose of a fill light may be served by a reflector rather than an actual light. The back light, also known as a hair light , helps separate a subject from its background and emphasize hair. In some cases, photographers may use

495-405: A hair light to create lens flare or other artistic effects. High-key lighting is a technique used to result in an image that is mostly free of shadows and has a background brighter than the subject. High-key lighting typically involves use of all three lights (or more) in the three-point lighting setup. Low-key lighting is a technique used to result in an image where only part of the subject

550-421: A loudspeaker or walkie-talkie to communicate with the model or assistants. In this range, the difference in perspective distortion between 85mm and 135mm is rather subtle; see ( Castleman 2007 ) harv error: no target: CITEREFCastleman2007 ( help ) for examples and analysis. Speed-wise, fast lenses (wide aperture) are preferred, as these allow shallow depth of field (blurring the background), which helps isolate

605-482: A moving truck as a studio. The project aimed to break down traditional barriers of access to the art form. In North America, senior portraits are formal portraits taken of students near the end of their senior year of high school . Senior portraits are often included in graduation announcements or are given to friends and family. They are also used in yearbooks and are usually rendered larger than their underclassmen counterparts and are often featured in color, even if

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660-494: A negative effect on juries. The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit held, "The double-shot picture, with front and profile shots alongside each other, is so familiar, from 'wanted' posters in the post office, motion pictures and television, that the inference that the person involved has a criminal record, or has at least been in trouble with the police, is natural, perhaps automatic." According to

715-461: A portrait studio is invited to the school to ensure all senior portraits (for the yearbook) are similar in pose and style, and so that students who cannot afford to purchase these portraits on their own or choose not to purchase portraits will appear in the yearbook the same as other students. Other schools allow students to choose a studio and submit portraits on their own. Modern senior portraits may include virtually any pose or clothing choice within

770-419: A real effect being 0.1, even the observation of p = 0.001 would have a false positive rate of 8 percent. It wouldn't even reach the 5 percent level. As a consequence, it has been recommended that every p -value should be accompanied by the prior probability of there being a real effect that it would be necessary to assume in order to achieve a false positive risk of 5%. For example, if we observe p = 0.05 in

825-404: A reflector rather than an actual light) is placed as a fill directly below the camera (or slightly to the opposite side). This lighting may be recognized by the strong light falling on the forehead, the bridge of the nose, the upper cheeks, and by the distinct shadow below the nose that often looks rather like a butterfly and thus, provides the name for this lighting technique. Butterfly lighting

880-472: A relatively narrow field of view of 30 degrees, a focal length of 150 mm, and a fast f-number in the ƒ/3.3-3.7 range. Classic focal length is in the range 80–135 mm on 135 film format and about 150-400mm on large format , which historically is first in photography. Such a field of view provides a flattening perspective distortion when the subject is framed to include their head and shoulders. Wider angle lenses (shorter focal length) require that

935-425: Is a test result which wrongly indicates that a condition does not hold. For example, when a pregnancy test indicates a woman is not pregnant, but she is, or when a person guilty of a crime is acquitted, these are false negatives. The condition "the woman is pregnant", or "the person is guilty" holds, but the test (the pregnancy test or the trial in a court of law) fails to realize this condition, and wrongly decides that

990-440: Is an error in binary classification in which a test result incorrectly indicates the presence of a condition (such as a disease when the disease is not present), while a false negative is the opposite error, where the test result incorrectly indicates the absence of a condition when it is actually present. These are the two kinds of errors in a binary test , in contrast to the two kinds of correct result (a true positive and

1045-483: Is given the letter β . The " power " (or the " sensitivity ") of the test is equal to 1 −  β . The term false discovery rate (FDR) was used by Colquhoun (2014) to mean the probability that a "significant" result was a false positive. Later Colquhoun (2017) used the term false positive risk (FPR) for the same quantity, to avoid confusion with the term FDR as used by people who work on multiple comparisons . Corrections for multiple comparisons aim only to correct

1100-404: Is less desirable and may be undesirable, and wider angle lenses may be used to show more context. Finally, soft focus ( spherical aberration ) is sometimes a desired effect, particularly in glamour photography where the "gauzy" look may be considered flattering. The Canon EF 135mm f / 2.8 with Softfocus is an example of a lens designed with a controllable amount of soft focus. Most often

1155-431: Is lit, has dark shadows, and a background darker than the subject. Low-key lighting typically involves use of just one light in the three-point lighting setup (although sometimes two). Butterfly lighting uses only two lights. The key light is placed directly in front of the subject above the camera (or slightly to one side), and a bit higher than the key light in a three-point lighting setup. The second light (more often

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1210-484: Is made of translucent fabric. This provides a softer lighting for portrait work and is often considered more appealing than the harsh light often cast by open strobes. Hair and background lights are usually not diffused. It is more important to control light spillage to other areas of the subject. Snoots , barn doors and flags or gobos help focus the lights exactly where the photographer wants them. Background lights are sometimes used with color gels placed in front of

1265-413: Is traditionally used in a studio, but photographers may use it on-location in combination with ambient light . This setup uses three lights, the key light, fill light, and back light, to fully bring out details and the three-dimensionality of the subject's features. The key light, also known as the main light, is placed either to the left, right, or above the subject's face, typically 30 to 60 degrees from

1320-513: Is when the photographer constructs an idea around the subject. It is the approach used in most studio and social photography. It is also used extensively in advertising and marketing when an idea has to be put across. The environmental approach depicts the subject in their environment. They are often shown as doing something which relates directly to the subject. The candid approach is where people are photographed without their knowledge going about their daily business. Whilst this approach taken by

1375-482: Is where manipulation of the image is used to change the final output. Lenses used in portrait photography are classically fast , medium telephoto lenses, though any lens may be used, depending on artistic purposes. See Canon EF Portrait Lenses for Canon lenses in this style; other manufacturers feature similar ranges. The first dedicated portrait lens was the Petzval lens developed in 1840 by Joseph Petzval . It had

1430-532: The Handbook of Massachusetts Evidence , "Because of the risk of prejudice to the defendant inherent in the admission of photographs of the 'mug shot' variety, judges and prosecutors are required to 'use reasonable means to avoid calling the jury's attention to the source of such photographs used to identify the defendant.'" (p. 617) Elsewhere, it cites a ruling in Commonwealth v. Martin that "admission of

1485-523: The United States , entrepreneurs have recently begun to monetize these public records via the mug shot publishing industry . Photographing of criminals began in the 1840s only a few years after the invention of photography , but it was not until 1888 that French police officer Alphonse Bertillon standardized the process. "Mug" is an English slang term for " face ", dating from the 18th century. Mug shot can more loosely mean any small picture of

1540-708: The US. The paired arrangement may have been inspired by the 1865 prison portraits taken by Alexander Gardner of accused conspirators in the Lincoln assassination trial , though Gardner's photographs were full-body portraits with only the heads turned for the profile shots. After the defeat of the Paris Commune in 1871, the Prefecture of Police of Paris hired a photographer, Eugène Appert , to take portraits of convicted prisoners. In 1888, Alphonse Bertillon invented

1595-714: The United Kingdom, police in Liverpool and Birmingham were doing so by 1848. By 1853, the Philadelphia Police Department had a gallery where daguerreotypes of criminals were displayed. and the New York Police Department had the same by 1857. The Pinkerton National Detective Agency began using these on wanted posters in the United States. By the 1870s the agency had amassed the largest collection of mug shots in

1650-571: The arrest. In some jurisdictions, mug shots are not legally required to be taken, mostly in the cases of high-profile individuals already known to a wider public. Mug shots have often been incorporated into wanted posters , including those for the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives list. In the US in the early 21st century an online industry developed around the publication and removal of mug shots from internet websites. The US legal system has long held that mug shots can have

1705-455: The camera. The purpose of the key light is to give shape to and emphasize particular features of the subject. The distance of the key light from the camera controls the falloff of the light and profoundness of shadows. The fill light, also known as the secondary main light, is typically placed opposite the key light. For example, if the key light is placed 30 degrees camera-left, the fill light will be placed 30 degrees camera-right. The purpose of

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1760-470: The conviction of an innocent person. A false positive error is a type I error where the test is checking a single condition, and wrongly gives an affirmative (positive) decision. However it is important to distinguish between the type 1 error rate and the probability of a positive result being false. The latter is known as the false positive risk (see Ambiguity in the definition of false positive rate, below ). A false negative error , or false negative ,

1815-573: The darker side of the subject's face, will even the contrast. Shutter speeds may be slower than normal, requiring the use of a tripod, but the lighting will be beautifully soft and rich. The best time to take window light portrait is considered to be early hours of the day and late hours of afternoon when light is more intense on the window. Curtains, reflectors, and intensity reducing shields are used to give soft light . While mirrors and glasses can be used for high key lighting. At times colored glasses, filters and reflecting objects can be used to give

1870-460: The definition in every paper. The hazards of reliance on p -values was emphasized in Colquhoun (2017) by pointing out that even an observation of p = 0.001 was not necessarily strong evidence against the null hypothesis. Despite the fact that the likelihood ratio in favor of the alternative hypothesis over the null is close to 100, if the hypothesis was implausible, with a prior probability of

1925-570: The focus of a composition such as the hands, eyes or part of the subject's torso. Head shots have become a popular style within portrait photography, particularly in the entertainment industry, where they are commonly used to showcase an actor's or model's facial features and expressions. There are essentially four approaches that can be taken in photographic portraiture—the constructionist, environmental, candid, and creative approach. Each has been used over time for different reasons be they technical, artistic or cultural. The constructionist approach

1980-807: The light to create colored backgrounds. Devices, tools, or accessories employed in photography , videography , and cinematography to shape, control, alter, direct, block, blackout, or otherwise affect light emitted from a light source , which may be natural or artificial light are called Light Modifiers. By altering the quality, direction, intensity, color, and or other attributes and characteristics of light, light modifiers enabling photographers to achieve specific effects or moods in their images, as well as shoot at locations and times that would not be possible without ability to modify light. Light modifiers come in various categories and types, each with its own unique characteristics and applications. They can be freestanding, placed on stands , handheld, hung, fit over

2035-440: The limits of good taste. Students often appear with pets, student athletes pose in letterman jackets or their playing uniforms, and many choose fashion photography . Outdoor photos are popular at locations that are scenic or important to the senior. Picture proofs are usually available to view online the next day which are lower quality, unedited and often with a watermark of the studio. False-positive A false positive

2090-421: The modern mug shot featuring full face and profile views, standardizing the lighting and angles. This system was soon adopted throughout Europe, and in the United States and Russia. The arrested person is sometimes required to hold a placard with name, date of birth, booking ID, weight, and other relevant information on it. With digital photography, the digital photograph is linked to a database record concerning

2145-470: The normal range. The cheapest portrait lenses are normal lenses (50 mm), used on a cropped sensor. For example, the Canon EF 50mm f/1.8 II is the least expensive Canon lens, but when used on a 1.6× cropped sensor yields an 80mm equivalent focal length, which is at the wide end of portrait lenses. The documentary I Am Chicago was an experiment in mobile full-body portraiture, using natural light and

2200-405: The null hypothesis. The terms are often used interchangeably, but there are differences in detail and interpretation due to the differences between medical testing and statistical hypothesis testing. A false positive error , or false positive , is a result that indicates a given condition exists when it does not. For example, a pregnancy test which indicates a woman is pregnant when she is not, or

2255-417: The paparazzi has been criticized, less invasive and exploitative candid photography has given the world important images of people in various situations and places over the last century. The images of Parisians by Doisneau and Cartier-Bresson demonstrate this approach. As with environmental photography, candid photography is important as a historical source of information about people. The creative approach

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2310-425: The perpetrator. Research has shown that grouped photos result in fewer false-positives than individually displaying each photo. Mug book also has a meaning in genealogy and history , referring to local biographical histories published in the US in the late 19th century. Portrait photography The relatively low cost of the daguerreotype in the middle of the 19th century and the reduced sitting time for

2365-412: The person is not pregnant or not guilty. A false negative error is a type II error occurring in a test where a single condition is checked for, and the result of the test is erroneous, that the condition is absent. The false positive rate (FPR) is the proportion of all negatives that still yield positive test outcomes, i.e., the conditional probability of a positive test result given an event that

2420-585: The portrait be taken from closer (for an equivalent field size ), and the resulting perspective distortion yields a relatively larger nose and smaller ears, which is considered unflattering and imp -like. Wide-angle lenses – or even fisheye lenses  – may be used for artistic effect, especially to produce a grotesque image. Conversely, longer focal lengths yield greater flattening because they are used from further away. This makes communication difficult and reduces rapport. They may be used, however, particularly in fashion photography, but longer lengths require

2475-399: The portrait desired color effects. The composition of shadows and soft light gives window light portraits a distinct effect different from portraits made from artificial lights. While using window light, the positioning of the camera can be changed to give the desired effects. Such as positioning the camera behind the subject can produce a silhouette of the individual while being adjacent to

2530-417: The probability of type II errors (false negatives that reject the alternative hypothesis when it is true). Complementarily, the false negative rate (FNR) is the proportion of positives which yield negative test outcomes with the test, i.e., the conditional probability of a negative test result given that the condition being looked for is present. In statistical hypothesis testing , this fraction

2585-411: The quality of the bokeh, without influencing the foreground (hence, these are not soft-focus lenses). However, extremely wide apertures are less frequently used, because they have a very shallow depth of field and thus the subject's face will not be completely in focus. Conversely, in environmental portraits, where the subject is shown in their environment, rather than isolated from it, background blur

2640-427: The rest of the yearbook is mostly reproduced in black and white. In some schools the requirements are strict regarding the choice of photographer or in the style of portraiture, with only traditional-style portraits being acceptable. Many schools choose to contract one photographer for their yearbook portraits, while other schools allow many different photographers to submit yearbook portraits. Senior portraits have become

2695-426: The soft light of an overhead window, and whatever else could be reflected with mirrors. Advances in photographic technology since the daguerreotype spawned more advanced techniques, allowed photographers to capture images with shorter exposure times, and work outside a studio environment. There are many techniques available to light a subject's face. Three-point lighting is one of the most common lighting setups. It

2750-461: The subject from the background and focus attention on them. This is particularly useful in the field, where one does not have a back drop behind the subject, and the background may be distracting. The details of bokeh in the resulting blur are accordingly also a consideration; some lenses, in particular the "DC" (Defocus Control) types by Nikon, are designed to give the photographer control over this aspect, by providing an additional ring acting only on

2805-441: The subject give a combination of shadows and soft light. And facing the subject from the same point of light source will produce high key effects with least shadows. There are many different techniques for portrait photography. Often it is desirable to capture the subject's eyes and face in sharp focus while allowing other less important elements to be rendered in a soft focus. At other times, portraits of individual features might be

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2860-528: The subject, though still much longer than now, led to a general rise in the popularity of portrait photography over painted portraiture. The style of these early works reflected the technical challenges associated with long exposure times and the painterly aesthetic of the time. Hidden mother photography , in which portrait photographs featured young children's mothers hidden in the frame to calm them and keep them still, arose from this difficulty. Subjects were generally seated against plain backgrounds, lit with

2915-410: The type I error rate, so the result is a (corrected) p -value . Thus they are susceptible to the same misinterpretation as any other p -value. The false positive risk is always higher, often much higher, than the p -value. Confusion of these two ideas, the error of the transposed conditional , has caused much mischief. Because of the ambiguity of notation in this field, it is essential to look at

2970-413: Was a favourite of famed Hollywood portraitist George Hurrell , which is why this style of lighting is often called Paramount lighting . Most lights used in modern photography are a flash of some sort. The lighting for portraiture is typically diffused by bouncing it from the inside of an umbrella , or by using a soft box . A soft box is a fabric box, encasing a photo strobe head, one side of which

3025-457: Was not present. The false positive rate is equal to the significance level . The specificity of the test is equal to 1 minus the false positive rate. In statistical hypothesis testing , this fraction is given the Greek letter α , and 1 −  α is defined as the specificity of the test. Increasing the specificity of the test lowers the probability of type I errors, but may raise

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