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85-515: Including: In recent times, some adherents of Ibadi Islam , which is commonly identified as a moderate offshoot of the Kharijite movement, have said that the precursors of both Ibadism and extremist Kharijite sects should be properly called Muḥakkima and al-Haruriyya rather than Kharijites. According to al-Shahrastani , an 11th AD century Shafiite scholar, the proto-Kharijite group were called al-Muhakkima al-Ula . They were rooted in

170-598: A community in Shibam. A second Ibadi state was established in Oman in 750, but fell to the newly formed Abbasid Caliphate in 752. Another Ibadi state was established in Oman in 793, surviving for a century until the Abbasid recapture in 893. However, Abbasid influence after reconquest was nominal and Ibadi imams continued to wield considerable power. Ibadi imamates were re-established in subsequent centuries. Ibadis still form

255-679: A fabrication to buttress the strength of the Ibadi school by making the Ibadis have the oldest collection of hadiths. Most Ibadi hadiths are found in the standard Sunni collections, bar a small group with Kharijite biases, and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections. Unlike in Sunni and Shi'a Islam alike, the study of hadiths has not traditionally been very important in Ibadi Islam, especially in Oman where Sunni influence

340-681: A moderate group in Basrah, grounded in the teachings of Jabir ibn Zayd, who, according to the Ibadis (perhaps posthumously), became their first imam. After the Battle of Siffin, the Kharijites engaged in ongoing conflicts with both Alid and Umayyad supporters, often inciting local rebellions against Umayyad rule. Following the Second Fitna in 680 CE, the Kharijites split into four main groups with varying levels of extremism. One significant division

425-415: A reference to the verse fal-hukmu lillah , Quran 40:12. From this expression, which they were the first to use, they became known as al-muḥakkima , or al-muḥakkima al-ula (lit. the first Muḥakkima ). The term may have originally referred ironically to their rejection of arbitration, since the word muhakkim means "arbiter". The initial group of dissenters, including Hurqus ibn Zuhayr as-Sa'di , went to

510-528: A verdict unfavorable to Ali, a large number of his followers left Kufa to join ibn Wahb, who had meanwhile moved his camp to another location along the Nahrawan Canal . At this point, the Kharijites proclaimed Ali's caliphate to be null and void and began to denounce as infidels anyone who did not accept their point of view. From Nahrawan, they began to agitate against Ali and raid his territories. When attempts at conciliation failed, Ali's forces attacked

595-420: A weak imam is obliged to consult the ulamāʾ , or community of scholars, before passing any judgement. A weak imam is appointed only at times of dire necessity, when the community is threatened with destruction. Contemporary Ibadis uphold four "states of the religion" ( masālik ad-dīn ), which are four different types of imams each appropriate to certain contexts. The imām al-kitmān "Imam of secrecy"

680-414: A wider use in Ibadi doctrine, where it is used to describe all forms of religious error beyond polytheism alone. Classical Ibadi theologians have stated that only the ahl al-istiqāmah will go to paradise , and that all sinning Ibadis as well as all non-Ibadis will be in hell forever. Ibadis traditionally reject Sunni beliefs that all Muslims in hell will eventually enter paradise, and hold that hell

765-744: Is a branch inside Islam, which many believe is descended from the Kharijites . The followers of Ibadism are known as the Ibadis or, as they call themselves, The People of Truth and Integrity ( Arabic : أهل الحقّ والاستقامة ). Ibadism emerged around 60 years after the Islamic prophet Muhammad 's death in 632 AD as a moderate school of the Khawarij movement, although contemporary Ibāḍīs strongly object to being classified as Kharijites. Ibadis consider and view themselves, like Shia and Sunni, as being

850-496: Is a learned scholar who "rules" in political quietism , practicing taqiyya to avoid persecution, in times when the Ibadi community cannot reveal itself openly. In some cases, a state of kitmān may be necessary even when there is no imam available. In this case, the Ibadi ulamāʾ takes over as surrogate rulers in place of the imam. This has been the case for most of the history of the North African Ibadis since

935-520: Is also recorded that Abu Bilal maintained close ties with Jabir b. Zaid, often spending significant time with him. Together, they visited 'A'ishah and reproached her for her role in the Battle of the Camel. During this period, Jabir's leadership of the Muhakkimah became well established. A learned and pious man from the al-Azd tribe—the same tribe as 'Abdullah b. Wahb al-Rasibi, the last elected leader of

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1020-615: Is eternal and inescapable for all humans who were not righteous Ibadis in life. About the Shi'ah party, Abu Hamzah said, "As for these factions (of 'Ali), they are a faction which has repudiated the Book of God to promulgate lies about Him. They have not left the people (of the community) because of their insight into religion (as we have), or their deep knowledge of the Qur'an; they punish crime in those who commit it, and commit it themselves when they get

1105-548: Is formed from this verbal noun and denotes collectively all those who proclaim this principle, lā ḥukma illā li-llāh ( لا حكم إلا لله ). The unity of the followers of ‘Alī was sundered in the crisis of the second fitna (64/683) when it split into three main schools, with the extremist Azāriqa and the moderate Ibadis at opposite poles and the Sufris somewhere in between. The early dissenters wished to secede from Ali's army in order to uphold their principles. They held that

1190-455: Is not a human being!" Upon hearing this, 'Ali exclaimed that this was exactly his point. The Qur'an, 'Ali explained, is but ink and paper, and it does not speak for itself. Instead, it is human beings who give effect to it according to their limited personal judgments and opinions. [... In] the historical context, the Khawarij's sloganeering was initially a call for the symbolism of legality and

1275-558: Is rebellious to the other, then fight the insolent one until it returns to God 's command. (Quran 49:9) Fight them until there is no fitnah (temptation), and religion is wholly unto God (Quran 8:39-40) The dissenters held that in agreeing to arbitration Ali committed the grave sin of rejecting God's judgment ( hukm ) and attempted to substitute human judgment for God's clear injunction, which prompted their motto lā ḥukma illā li-llāh ( لا حكم إلا لله , 'judgement belongs to God alone'). They also believed that Muslims own allegiance only to

1360-619: Is required of the imām al-shārī and his followers, as suggested in the following speech by Abu Bilal: You go out to fight in the way of God desiring His pleasure, not wanting anything of the goods of the present world, nor have you any desire for it, nor will you return to it. You are the ascetic and the hater of this life, desirous of the world to come, trying with all in your power to obtain it: going out to be killed and for nothing else. So know that you are [already] killed and have no return to this life; you are going forward and will not turn away from righteousness till you come to God. If such

1445-652: Is the twelfth-century Tartīb al-Musnad , comprising 1,005 hadiths. The Tartīb is divided into four books. The first two books are muttaṣil narrations by Jabir ibn Zayd , a student of Muhammad's widow Aisha . The third book includes hadith transmitted by the eighth-century Kharijite scholar al-Rabi' bin Habib Al-Farahidi as preserved in the Jami Sahih collection, generally also from Jabir ibn Zayd. The fourth book consists of an appendix of saying and stories from later Ibadi scholars and imams. Most of

1530-449: Is your concern, go back and finish up your needs and wishes for this life, pay your debts, purchase yourself, take leave of your family and tell them that you will never return to them. The third state, that of the imām al-zuhūr "Imam of glory", are imams as active rulers of an Ibadi state. The first two caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar are considered ideal models of the imām al-zuhūr . A ruling imam who sins must be removed from power;

1615-477: The ummah or wider Islamic community, who possess the various privileges accorded to Muslims in Islamic law and who Ibadis may intermarry with. All non-Ibadi Muslims and even Ibadi sinners are considered guilty of kufr (usually translated as "unbelief"), although contemporary Ibadis distinguish between kufr shirk , or religious disbelief, and kufr nifaq , or infidelity in the form of sinning. The term shirk —"polytheism" in conventional Islamic theology—has

1700-501: The Hijrah , when no independent Muslim community existed that could enforce Islamic laws. Therefore, ḥudūd punishments are suspended under an imām al-kitmān , except the punishments for apostasy, blasphemy, and murder. Ibadis also do not hold Friday prayers in the absence of a legitimate ruling imam. Like the Shi'a but not the Sunni, they do not allow a couple who has committed zināʾ (unlawful sex) to marry each other. During

1785-627: The Kharijites who followed the leadership of Nafi ibn al-Azraq . Adherents of Azraqism participated in an armed struggle against the rulers of the Umayyad Caliphate , and they declared those who avoided this duty infidels - kafirs - and allowed their murder. Nafi ibn al-Azraq even permitted the killing of women and children of his opponents. At the same time, the Azraqites did not extend the principle of killing “apostates” to Christians and Jews, since they believed that they did not betray

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1870-775: The Nafusa Mountains in northwestern Libya, the island of Djerba in Tunisia, and in the M'zab in Algeria. In East Africa , they are found in Zanzibar . Ibadi missionary activity also reached Persia, India, Egypt, Sudan, Spain and Sicily, although Ibadis communities in these regions ceased to exist. By the year 900, Ibadism had spread to Sindh , Khorosan , the Hadhramaut, Dhofar , the Imamate of Oman , Muscat ,

1955-540: The Nafusa Mountains , and Qeshm, Hormozgan ; by 1200, the sect was present in al-Andalus , Sicily , M'zab and the western part of the Sahel as well. In the 14th century, historian Ibn Khaldun made reference to vestiges of Ibadi influence in Hadhramaut, though the sect no longer exists in the region today. Including: Ibadis state that their school predates mainstream Islamic schools and some western non-Muslim writers agree. In particular, Donald Hawley 's view

2040-546: The Ramadan fast , Ibadis require ghusl or full-body ablution to be undertaken prior to the beginning of the fast on that day if it is necessitated, otherwise the fast for that day is invalid. They hold that committing grave sins is a form of breaking the fast. When making up for missed days of fasting after Ramadan has ended, the Ibadis believe that the atonement fast must be consecutive, whereas both Sunnis and Shi'as believe that Muslims may atone for missed days by fasting for

2125-587: The Sirah of Salim b. Dhakwan, reflect their opposition to extremism. In Basra, a moderate Kharijite doctrine emerged under Jabir ibn Zayd, influenced by the teachings of Ibn Abbas. Missionaries spread this doctrine across the Caliphate, including to Oman, Yemen, Hadramawt, Khurasan, and North Africa. Despite their efforts, the Ibadi leaders in Basra practiced kitman (concealment of beliefs) to avoid persecution after

2210-544: The Syrian governor Mu'awiya . Opposing both parties, they seceded from Ali's army, whose part they initially had been, and established their own small state in Iraq. They were attacked and crushed by the caliph. The surviving Kharijites fled and one of them assassinated Ali in 661, after which Mu'awiya became caliph. The Kharijite rebellions against his government were defeated, but after his death in 680, when civil war broke out,

2295-505: The caliphate horsemen that existed in the times of Muhammad. The al-Muhakkima al-Ula group were led by a figure named Dhu al-Khuwaishirah at-Tamimi , more famously known as Hurqus ibn Zuhayr as-Sa'di , a Tamim tribe chieftain, veteran of the Battle of Hunayn and first generation Kharijites who protested the war spoils distribution. According to several Hadiths, Hurqus was recorded being prophesied by Muhammad that he will revolt against

2380-576: The Ahwaz area, Ibn al-Azraq, the eponym of the sect, raided Basran suburbs. These are described in the sources to be the most fanatic of all the Kharijite groups for they approved of the doctrine of isti'rad : indiscriminate killing of the non-Kharijite Muslims including their women and children. An army sent against them by the Zubayrid governor of Basra in early 685 defeated the Azariqa and Ibn al-Azraq

2465-522: The Azariqa as he was sent against the pro-Alid Mukhtar and later appointed governor of Mosul to defend against possible Umayyad attack. The Azariqa, now under the command of Ubayd Allah ibn Mahuz's brother Zubayr, returned to Iraq and attacked al-Mada'in, in the neighborhood of Kufa, ravaged the town and after pursuit fled again to Iran where they besieged Isfahan. They were driven away and, Zubayr ibn Mahuz being slain, fled to Fars and latter to Kirman . Reinvigorated by their new leader Qatari ibn al-Fuja'a ,

2550-418: The Azariqa returned to Basra area soon afterwards and Muhallab had to be sent against them. For a long time, the Azariqa held Fars and Kirman although Muhallab prevented them from advancing to Iraq. Qatari minted his own coins in the regions under his control and adopted the title amir al-mu'minin (commander of the faithful), which was reserved for caliphs. In the meantime, Umayyads recaptured Iraq from

2635-471: The Basrans for supporting Ibn al-Zubayr and calling them "polytheists." However, Ibn Ibāḍ stayed behind in Basra and defended those who remained. He argued that the Basrans were not polytheists but guilty only of "ingratitude" (kufr ni'ma), a lesser offense that allowed true Muslims to live among them. Ibn Ibāḍ also opposed other Kharijite factions. He rejected the views of ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Ṣaffār, founder of

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2720-572: The Battle of al-Nahr (37 H/658 AD), followed by another massacre at al-Nakhilah by the joint forces of Mu'awiyah and al-Hasan b. 'Ali. After these events, the Umayyad rule became firmly established and focused on suppressing all forms of opposition. As a result, sympathizers of the Muhakkimah—referred to as 'al-Muslimun' or 'Jama'at al-Muslimin' in early Ibadhi literature—were forced to hide their faith and conduct their activities in secret. Among

2805-739: The Caliph Marwan II led a 4,000-strong army and routed the Ibadis first in Mecca , then in Sana'a in Yemen , and finally surrounded them in Shibam in the western Hadhramaut in 748, defeating and killing Abu Hamza and Ibn Yahya and destroying the first Ibadi state. Problems back in their heartland of Islamic Syria led the Umayyads to sign a peace accord with the Ibadis, who were allowed to retain

2890-522: The Caliphate later. At first, Hosts of Hurqus were among those who participated in the Muslim conquest of Persia led by Arfajah , Rashidun general who commands the army and navy in Iraq. During Conquest of Khuzestan , Hurqus defeated Hormuzan in 638 at Ahvaz (known as Hormizd-Ardashir in modern era) to subdue the city. However, later during the reign of Uthman, Hurqus was one of the ringleaders from Basra that conspired to assassinate Uthman . They are

2975-523: The Caliphate, Thus inciting the Great Berber Revolt which weakened the Umayyad Caliphate to certain degree. The followers of ‘Alī who departed from his army in protest over the arbitration were named Muḥakkima after their cry lā ḥukma illā li-llāh . The verb ḥakkama signifies, amongst others, this principle which means to judge, to decide and the verbal noun taḥkīm , a judgment or decision. The participial noun muḥakkima

3060-520: The First Fitna but turned away after rejecting arbitration at the Battle of Siffin in 657 CE. From the Ibadis' perspective, the Muhakkimah were the only faction striving to restore the just Islamic Imamate, as it existed during the time of Abu Bakr, 'Umar, the first six years of 'Uthman's rule, and the early years of 'Ali before he accepted arbitration. The Muhakkimah's military efforts ended with their massacre by 'Ali b. Abi Talib and his forces at

3145-602: The Ibadi hadiths have a very short isnād or chain of transmission. They are claimed to be narrated from Jabir ibn Zayd to his student Abu Ubayda Muslim ibn Abi Karima and from the latter to al-Rabi', who died in 786 after preserving his transmissions in the Jami Sahih . This was then reformulated into the Tartīb al-Musnad some four centuries later. John C. Wilkinson , an expert on Ibadism, states that this chain of transmission "does not stand up to any close examination". It may be

3230-449: The Ibadi model for this is the assassination of the third caliph Uthman and the Kharijite revolt against Ali, both actions being viewed as legitimate resistance to a sinful ruler. Finally, the state of the imām al-difā' "imam of defense" involves appointing an imam for a predetermined period of time when the Ibadi community is under foreign attack. He is removed once the threat has been defeated. Ibadis believe that all who profess

3315-532: The Kharijites in their camp, inflicting a heavy defeat on them at the Battle of Nahrawan in 658. This bloodshed sealed the split of the Kharijites from Ali's followers, and Kharijite calls for revenge ultimately led to Ali's assassination in 661. On a larger scope, remnants of Hurqus' group of the Muhakkima al-Ula or the Haruriyya proto-Kharijites who had survived the battle of Nahrawan would later influence

3400-479: The Kharijites resumed their anti-state activism. Iraqi garrison town of Basra had become the center of the Kharijite activity. In 683, several Basran Kharijites went to the Islamic holy city of Mecca to help Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr , an opponent of the new caliph Yazid I , who had been besieged in the city. After the death of Yazid later that year, the Kharijites broke up with Ibn al-Zubayr due to difference of opinion and went back to Basra where chaos reigned in

3485-481: The Khawarij accused 'Ali of accepting the judgment and dominion (hakimiyya) of human beings instead of abiding by the dominion of God's law. Upon hearing of this accusation, 'Ali called on the people to gather around him and brought out a large copy of the Qur'an. 'Ali touched the Qur'an while instructing it to speak to the people and inform them about God's law. Surprised, the people who had gathered around 'Ali exclaimed, "What are you doing? The Qur'an cannot speak, for it

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3570-464: The Muhakkimah—Jabir focused on intellectual activities. His scholarly approach allowed him to propagate and preserve Islamic teachings without arousing the suspicion of the Umayyad authorities. His position as a prominent mufti in Basrah provided him with cover and enabled him to form widespread connections with influential individuals across the Islamic world. The Ibadi school eventually emerged as

3655-666: The Muslim community must be descended from the Quraysh tribe . (This differs from the Shia belief that ideally and eventually they will be ruled by the Mahdi , who will be descended from Prophet Muhammad's Household ( Ahl al-Bayt )—Muhammad having been a member of the Quraysh tribe.) Rather, the two primary qualifications of an Ibadi imam are that he is the most pious man of the community and

3740-582: The Muʿtazila and unlike the modern Sunni, the Ibadis believe that: But unlike the Mu'tazila, Ibadis follow the Ash'ari position of occasionalism , which holds that all events are caused directly by God and that what appear to be laws of causation , such as that a fire produces smoke, is only because God chooses to create fire, and then to create smoke. One Ibadi scholar has even stated that this single difference means that

3825-471: The Muʿtazila are more misguided than the Sunni. The fiqh or jurisprudence of Ibadis is based on the same fundamental principles as Sunni and Shi'a juristic traditions, but the Ibadis reject taqlid or deference and stress the importance of ijtihad , or independent reasoning. Contemporary Ibadis hold that believers are allowed to follow incorrect opinions derived through ijtihad as long as they believe it to be true after having made an effort to arrive at

3910-496: The Quran and the sunna of Muhammad, Abu Bakr, and Umar, and denied that the right to the imamate should be based on close kinship with Muhammad. These beliefs found expression in their departure from Ali's army. Khaled Abou El Fadl writes, Anecdotal reports about the debates between 'Ali and the Khawarij reflect unmistakable tension about the meaning of legality and the implications of the rule of law. In one such report members of

3995-399: The Quran. While most of Ali's army accepted the proposal, one group, mostly from the tribe of Tamim, vehemently objected to the arbitration, seeing it as setting human judgment above God's word. They expressed their protest by proclaiming that "there is no judge but God and there is no judgment but God's" ( lā ḥakama illā-llāh, wa-lā ḥukma illā li-llāh . or lā ḥukmu illā li-llāh ) This is

4080-514: The Sufri sect, and clashed with Abū Bayhas, leader of the Bayhasiyya sect, whose views were closer to the radical doctrines of Ibn al-Azraq. The Ibadis distanced themselves from more extreme Kharijite beliefs, particularly on two key issues: The Ibadis viewed the doctrines of Nafi and other extreme Kharijites as dangerous heresies (bida'a) and waged wars against them. Early Ibadhi writings, like

4165-678: The Sunnis and Shi'as, and was not exclusive, with individual communities encouraged to elect their Imam. These imams exercised political, spiritual and military functions. In 745, Talib al-Haqq established the first Ibadi state in the Hadhramaut and succeeded in capturing Yemen in 746 from the Umayyad Caliphate. The Ibadi insurrection then spread to the Hejaz , with Abu Hamza al-Mukhtar conquering Mecca and Medina. In response,

4250-404: The Umayyads retook control of the city under Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan in 691 CE. Jābir ibn Zayd was eventually recognised as the first Imam of the Ibadis although this was in a state of kitman. Ibn Zayd's criticisms of the narrations of Muhammad's companions formed the corpus of the Ibadi interpretation of Islamic law. The position of Ibadi Imam was elected, unlike the dynastic succession of

4335-536: The adjective Wahbi (referring to Ibn Wahb al-Rasibi) to describe their denomination and strongly identified with ahl al-Nahrawan (the people of Nahrawan). Until recently, some Ibadis also identified Ibadism as a sect of Kharijism. During the 20th century, Ibadis moved away from sectarianism and favored a rapprochement with Sunni Islam. Over time, Ibadis grew uncomfortable with the Kharijite label, and contemporary Ibadis strongly object to being classified as Kharijites. In their objections, some modern Ibadi authors point to

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4420-437: The aftermath of the caliph's death. One of these was Nafi ibn al-Azraq . Ibn al-Azraq along with other militant Kharijites took over the city, killed the deputy governor and broke 140 Kharijites free from prison. Soon afterwards, the Basrans recognized Ibn al-Zubayr as caliph and he appointed Umar ibn Ubayd Allah ibn Ma'mar his governor there. Umar drove the band of Ibn al-Azraq out of Basra and they escaped to Ahwaz . From

4505-453: The appropriateness of these practices within the Ibadi creed, with some considering them an undesirable non-Ibadi influence on the faith while others continue to practice and teach them. Ibadis agree with Sunnis , regarding Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab as rightly-guided caliphs. They regard the first half of Uthman ibn Affan 's rule as righteous and the second half as corrupt and affected by both nepotism and heresy. They approve of

4590-646: The basis of the works of Ibn Ibāḍ, Jābir bin Zayd , Abū ‘Ubaida, Rabī‘ b. Ḥabīb and Abū Sufyān among others. Basra is the foundation of the Ibāḍī community. Various Ibāḍī communities were established in southern Arabia , with bases in Oman , North Africa , and East Africa . In terms of scholastic theology , the Ibadi creed resembles that of the Muʿtazila in many aspects, except in the central question of predestination . Like

4675-492: The belief in oneness of God and belief in the prophethood of Muhammad as the last messenger are members of the Islamic community. It is the duty of Ibadis to correct those who differ with them in their beliefs. Only the righteous Ibadis, referred to as the ahl al-istiqāmah "people of uprightness", are worthy of being called " Muslims ". Non-Ibadi Muslims are termed the ahl al-khilaf "people of opposition". Nonetheless, non-Ibadi Muslims are still respected as fellow members of

4760-445: The chance. They have determined upon tumult and know not the way out of it. Crude in (their knowledge of) the Qur'an, following soothwayers; teaching people to hope for the resurrection of the dead, and expecting the return (of their Imams) to this world; entrusting their religion to a man who can not see them! God smite them! How perverse they are!" The notions of walayah "affiliation" and bara'a "disassociation" are central to

4845-452: The correct opinion; certain now-extinct Ibadi sects once held that those with incorrect opinions were disbelievers. Many early Ibadis rejected qiyas or deductive analogical reasoning as a basis for jurisprudence, but the importance of analogies is now widely accepted by Ibadi jurists. Ibadis believe that the stage of the imām al-kitmān corresponds to Muhammad's life in Mecca before

4930-621: The defenders of Mecca against the Umayyads. However, they became disillusioned when the Meccan Caliph, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, refused to denounce the late Caliph Uthmān. Disappointed, they returned to Basra, where they were imprisoned by the Umayyad governor Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad. When Basra overthrew Umayyad rule in support of Ibn al-Zubayr in late 683 or early 684 CE, the Kharijite prisoners were freed. After their release, Ibn al-Azraq led many Kharijites to Ahvaz in Khuzestan, condemning

5015-583: The differences between Ibadi doctrine and some of the more extreme beliefs commonly associated with Kharijites. The Ibadi scholar Nasir ibn Silayman al-Sabi'i has argued that the precursors of Ibadis should be called al-Muḥakkima and al-Haruriyya, and that the first clear use of the term khawarij (Kharijites) as a proper noun appears only after the split of Ibadis from more extremist Kharijite sects. Ibadi Islam The Ibadi movement or Ibadism ( Arabic : الإباضية , romanized :  al-ʾIbāḍiyya , Arabic pronunciation: [alʔibaːˈdˤijja] )

5100-456: The fall of the Rustumid imamate in 909, unlike their Omani coreligionists, who periodically reestablished imamates until 1958. The second state, that of the imām al-shārī "Imam of exchange", are Ibadi imams who "exchange" their lives in the living world for a favorable place in the afterlife by engaging in military struggle ( jihād ) against an unbearable tyrannical authority with

5185-430: The first part of Ali 's caliphate and (like Shī'a) disapprove of Aisha 's rebellion and Muawiyah I 's revolt. However, they regard Ali's acceptance of arbitration at the Battle of Ṣiffīn as rendering him unfit for leadership, and condemn him for killing the Khawarij of an-Nahr in the Battle of Nahrawan . Modern Ibadi theologians defend the early Kharijite opposition to Uthman, Ali and Muawiyah. In their belief,

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5270-534: The goal of creating an Ibadi state. An example is the early Basran Kharijite leader Abu Bilal Mirdas , who was later held by the Ibadiyya to be a prototype of the "Imam of exchange". A would-be imām al-shārī cannot begin military action until they have found at least forty followers, as Abu Bilal had, willing to die for the cause; once the war has begun, the imam must continue to fight until there are only three followers remaining. A particularly ascetic lifestyle

5355-430: The imamate to be “surpassed” ( مفضول mafḍūl ). Based on this, they declared the caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib , Uthman ibn Affan and their adherents unbelievers. The Azraqites considered the territories beyond their control to be the " land of war " ( دار الحرب Dār al-Ḥarb ). The Kharijites originated at the Battle of Siffin in 657 when they opposed the arbitration agreement between the belligerents Caliph Ali and

5440-639: The majority of the contemporary Omani population and the royal family of Oman are Ibadi. Ibadi missionary activity was met with considerable success in North Africa . In 757, Ibadis seized Tripoli and captured Kairouan the next year. Driven out by the Abbasid army in 761, Ibadi leaders founded a state, which became known as Rustamid dynasty , in Tahart . It was overthrown in 909 by the Fatimid Caliphate . Ibadi communities continue to exist in

5525-533: The medieval Islamic scholars associate the early Kharijites who killed Uthman as those who follow Abdullah ibn Saba'. Both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars tend to refer to Ibadis as "moderate Kharijites", and Ibadis are commonly identified in academic sources as an offshoot of the Kharijite movement, which broke away from more extremist Kharijites currents in the late 7th century CE. Most scholars identify Kharijites as those who seceded from Ali's army because of their rejection of arbitration. Ibadis have traditionally used

5610-454: The most learned in fiqh , or Islamic jurisprudence; and that he has the military knowledge to defend the Ibadi community against war and oppression. In the Omani tradition, an imam who is learned in the Islamic legal sciences is considered "strong" ( qawī ), and an imam whose primary skills are military without scholarly qualifications is considered "weak" ( ḍaʻīf ). Unlike a strong imam,

5695-409: The next legitimate caliph and first Ibadi imam was Abdullah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi , the leader of the Kharijites who turned against Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with Muawiyah and was killed by Ali at Nahrawan . Ibadis believe that the " genealogy of Islam " ( nasab al-islām ) was transmitted by other individuals at Nahrawan, such as Ḥurḳūṣ ibn Zuhayr al-Saʿdī , and developed into Ibadi Islam,

5780-573: The oldest and most genuine sect of Islam . Today, the largest of these communities and the most prosperous is in Oman in the southeast peninsula of Arabia. It is also practiced to a lesser extent in Algeria ( Mzab ), Tunisia ( Djerba ), Libya ( Nafusa ), and Tanzania ( Zanzibar ). The Ibadis are a moderate branch of the Kharijites, an Islamic sect that split from the Muhakkima and al-Haruriyya. These groups initially supported Ali during

5865-410: The period of imām al-kitmān , the duties of affiliation and disassociation are no longer valid. Some have characterised the works of some Ibadi scholars as being particularly anti-Shi'ite in nature, and some state that Ibadi scholars, like al-Warjalani, held Nasibi views. Ibadi beliefs remain understudied by outsiders, both non-Muslim and other Muslim. Ibadis have stated that whilst they read

5950-401: The recitation of al-Fātiḥah . Ibadis shorten prayers when staying in foreign territory—even if they do so on a permanent basis—unless they choose to adopt the country as their new homeland; Sunnis generally hold that believers should return to the full prayer after a given number of days outside of home. The primary Ibadi collection of hadiths, or traditions and sayings attributed to Muhammad,

6035-421: The required amount at any time, whether consecutive or nonconsecutive. Like the Shi'a and some Maliki Sunnis, the Ibadis keep their arms at their sides rather than clasping the hands during prayer . During the noon and afternoon prayers , Ibadis recite solely al-Fātiḥah , the first chapter of the Quran, whereas other Muslims may recite other Quranic verses in addition. They also do not say ʾāmīn after

6120-513: The soldiers of Ali during the battle of Siffin , who later rebelled towards the Caliphate of Ali and planned their rebellion in the village of Haruri. The host of Hurqus also contained another Kharijite embryos that hail from Bajila tribe, which led by Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi , who later became founder of Ibadi group . During the Battle of Siffin, Mu'awiya proposed to Ali to settle their dispute through arbitration, with each side appointing referees who would pronounce judgment according to

6205-631: The splinter sects of Azariqa , Sufriyyah , Ibadiyyah, Yazidiyyah, Maimuniyyah, Ajaridah, al-Baihasiyyah, and the Najdat radical sects. These violent warrior sects would plague the entire history of the Rashidun , Umayyad , and Abbasid Caliphates with endemic rebellions. The egalitarian Kharijite doctrine brought about by the Sufrite branch preachers even also found homage among the flocks of Berber soldiers due to their largely unequal treatment under

6290-406: The supremacy of law that later descended into an unequivocal radicalized demand for fixed lines of demarcation between what is lawful and unlawful. Aside from the name of al-Muhakkima Muslim scholars and chroniclers also coined a name of Saba'iyya towards the group as derogatory nickname, which means "the followers of Abdullah ibn Saba' . As Muhammad Sa'id Roslan, Egyptian Salafi cleric explained

6375-470: The survivors of the Battle of al-Nahrawan were 'Urwah b. 'Udayyah and his brother Abu Bilal Mirdas. They continued their religious activities in Basrah, where they were known for their devotion and became leading members of the 'Jama'at al-Muslimin'. Abu Bilal was particularly influential in Basrah and was one of three men who openly commented on the first sermon of Ziyad b. Abih when Ziyad was appointed governor of Basrah, Khurasan, and Sijistan by Mu'awiyah. It

6460-468: The teachings of the prophets Jesus and Moses . Like all Kharijites, they declared Muslims who committed great sins ( al- Kabā'ir ) to be unfaithful, and claimed that they would eternally suffer in hellfire. The Azraqites denied the principle of “prudent concealment of faith” ( takiya ). They recognized the imamate as “worthy” ( أفضل ʾafḍal ), that is, the applicant who would come up with arms and call people to fight “unbelievers” and would not allow

6545-621: The theology of Ibadi relations with non-Ibadi people. Only righteous Ibadis are considered worthy of friendship and association, whereas sinners and non-Ibadi Muslims are subject to dissociation, sometimes to the point of ostracism. Modern Ibadi scholars suggest that the duty of dissociation does not require rudeness or social avoidance, and that an Ibadi may have genuine affection for a non-Ibadi; nonetheless, "an inner awareness of separation" between upright Ibadis and non-Ibadis must be maintained. In practice, however, Ibadi Muslims have generally been very tolerant of non-Ibadi religious practice. During

6630-404: The third caliph Uthman had deserved his death because of his faults, and that Ali was the legitimate caliph, while Mu'awiya was a rebel. They believed that the Quran clearly stated that as a rebel Mu'awiya was not entitled to arbitration, but rather should be fought until he repented, pointing to the following verses: If two parties of the faithful fight each other, then conciliate them. Yet if one

6715-557: The true form of the faith. The Wahbi is considered to be the most mainstream of the schools of thought within Ibadism. The main reason the Wahbi strain has come to dominate within Ibadism is that most textual references that have been preserved can be attributed to Wahbi affiliated scholars. Azariqa Including: The Azariqa ( Arabic : الأزارقة , romanized :  al-ʾAzāriqa ) were an extremist branch of

6800-403: The village of Harura near Kufa, where they elected an obscure soldier named Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi as their leader. This gave rise to their alternative name, al-Haruriyya . Other defectors from Kufa, where Ali's army had returned awaiting the outcome of arbitration, gradually joined the dissenters, while Ali persuaded some dissenters to return to Kufa. However, when the arbitration ended in

6885-494: The works of both Sunnis and Shias, the learned scholars of those two sects never read Ibadi works and often repeat myths and false information when they address the topic of Ibadism without performing proper research. The development of Ibadi theology happened thanks to the works of scholars and imams of the community, whose histories, lives, and personalities are part of the Islamic history . Ibāḍī theology can be understood on

6970-467: Was killed. However, they chose Ubayd Allah ibn Mahuz as the new Emir, regrouped and forced the Zubayrid army to retreat and ransacking resumed. After a few more defeats, Ibn al-Zubayr sent Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra against them. Muhallab defeated them at the battle of Sillabra in May 686 and killed Ibn Mahuz. They subsequently retreated to Fars. However, in late 686, Muhallab had to discontinue his campaign against

7055-435: Was led by Ibn al-'Azraq, who introduced doctrines that were rejected by leaders such as Jabir b. Zaid and Abdullah b. Ibadh, who upheld the original principles of the Muhakkima, according to Ibadhi tradition. The Ibadi school of Kharijites emerged after the siege of Mecca in 683 CE, during the second Muslim civil war. Abd Allāh ibn Ibāḍ was part of a group of Basran Kharijites, led by Nafi ibn al-Azraq, who initially supported

7140-409: Was that Ibadism should be considered an early and highly orthodox interpretation of Islam. Unlike the Sunni theory of the caliphate of the Rashidun , and the Shi'i notion of divinely appointed Imamate , the leaders of Ibadi Islam—called Imams—do not need to rule the entire Muslim world; Muslim communities are considered capable of ruling themselves. The Ibadis reject the belief that the leader of

7225-515: Was weaker. Unlike traditional Sunni Islam but like the modern Salafist movement, Ibadis do not have Sufi orders and reject the veneration of saints . Historically, the views of Sufis were not well regarded in Ibadi literature, with Ibadi scholars like Al-Mundhiri writing anti-Sufi works. However, mystical devotional practices reminiscent of Sunni Sufism were traditionally practiced by some other Ibadi scholars, to whom miracles were sometimes ascribed as with Sunni Sufis. Modern Ibadis disagree on

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