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89-434: Carey did not do a significant amount of public performing in her early years in the music industry, partially due to stage fright . Despite this, she became a successful musician with two top-selling albums and five number-one singles before she ever gave a significant performance before a live audience. Her first significant performance was MTV Unplugged , which received positive reception. In July 1993, she performed before

178-480: A camera ). Performing in front of an unknown audience can cause significantly more anxiety than performing in front of familiar faces. In some cases, the person will suffer no such fright from this, while they might suffer from not knowing who they're performing to. In some cases, stage fright may be a part of a larger pattern of social phobia ( social anxiety disorder ), but many people experience stage fright without any wider problems. Quite often, stage fright arises in

267-458: A Santa Claus mask with white cotton balls in the beard. Fear can be learned by experiencing or watching a frightening traumatic accident. For example, if a child falls into a well and struggles to get out, he or she may develop a fear of wells, heights ( acrophobia ), enclosed spaces ( claustrophobia ), or water ( aquaphobia ). There are studies looking at areas of the brain that are affected in relation to fear. When looking at these areas (such as

356-527: A chemical smelling of banana, and a component of bee alarm pheromone. The experiment also showed that the bees' fear-induced pain tolerance was mediated by an endorphin . By using the forced swimming test in rats as a model of fear-induction, the first mammalian "alarm substance" was found. In 1991, this "alarm substance" was shown to fulfill criteria for pheromones: well-defined behavioral effect, species specificity, minimal influence of experience and control for nonspecific arousal. Rat activity testing with

445-434: A child's psyche development or personality. For example, parents tell their children not to talk to strangers in order to protect them. In school, they would be motivated to not show fear in talking with strangers, but to be assertive and also aware of the risks and the environment in which it takes place. Ambiguous and mixed messages like this can affect their self-esteem and self-confidence. Researchers say talking to strangers

534-400: A cold person warmer or a frightened animal look more impressive), sweating, increased blood glucose ( hyperglycemia ), increased serum calcium, increase in white blood cells called neutrophilic leukocytes, alertness leading to sleep disturbance and "butterflies in the stomach" ( dyspepsia ). This primitive mechanism may help an organism survive by either running away or fighting the danger. With

623-415: A comparably strong emotional response in both females and males, stress-induced sweat from females produced markedly stronger arousal in women than in men. Statistical tests pinpointed this gender-specificity to the right amygdala and strongest in the superficial nuclei. Since no significant differences were found in the olfactory bulb , the response to female fear-induced signals is likely based on processing

712-418: A creature, species, or situations that should be avoided. SSDRs are an evolutionary adaptation that has been seen in many species throughout the world including rats, chimpanzees , prairie dogs , and even humans , an adaptation created to help individual creatures survive in a hostile world. Fear learning changes across the lifetime due to natural developmental changes in the brain. This includes changes in

801-410: A discussion revealed that many years of formal education might counteract the performance anxiety linked to personality type. Given various conditions, performance anxiety reduced with time, indicating that the diary style of self-monitoring may have therapeutic benefits. Propranolol is occasionally prescribed off-label to treat performance anxiety. As a beta-blocker drug, Propranolol prevents

890-424: A fear-provoking situation. This suggests that fear can develop in both conditions, not just simply from personal history. Fear is affected by cultural and historical context. For example, in the early 20th century, many Americans feared polio , a disease that can lead to paralysis. There are consistent cross-cultural differences in how people respond to fear. Display rules affect how likely people are to express

979-460: A genetic effect that is the result of natural selection . From an evolutionary psychology perspective, different fears may be different adaptations that have been useful in our evolutionary past. They may have developed during different time periods. Some fears, such as fear of heights, may be common to all mammals and developed during the mesozoic period. Other fears, such as fear of snakes, may be common to all simians and developed during

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1068-524: A high testosterone level related to unhappiness in response to androstenone in men, and a high estradiol level related to disliking of androstenone in women. A German study from 2006 showed when anxiety-induced versus exercise-induced human sweat from a dozen people was pooled and offered to seven study participants, of five able to olfactorily distinguish exercise-induced sweat from room air, three could also distinguish exercise-induced sweat from anxiety induced sweat. The acoustic startle reflex response to

1157-404: A higher level of fear. Pathogens can suppress amygdala activity. Rats infected with the toxoplasmosis parasite become less fearful of cats, sometimes even seeking out their urine-marked areas. This behavior often leads to them being eaten by cats. The parasite then reproduces within the body of the cat. There is evidence that the parasite concentrates itself in the amygdala of infected rats. In

1246-603: A largely private audience in Proctor's Theatre in Schenectady, New York , which was used for an NBC television special and the Here Is Mariah Carey video release. In late 1993, she decided to conduct a short United States tour to promote her album Music Box , which had been released two months previously. Carey played her first concert tour in arenas, rather than working her way up from smaller venues as

1335-517: A little bit of dancing in her 1996 Daydream World Tour . Unlike her future tours, however, Carey kept costume changes to a minimum, with at most one before an encore. The show was about 80 minutes long. The shows' set list was focused on her hits, with occasional non-singles from her studio albums mixed in. The one new song she introduced was her rendition of The SOS Band 's 1983 R&B hit " Just Be Good to Me ", which she introduced as "one of my favorite 'old school' songs." Carey's opening concert at

1424-400: A mere anticipation of a performance, often a long time ahead. It has numerous manifestations: stuttering , tachycardia , tremor in the hands and legs, sweaty hands, facial nerve tics , dry mouth , and dizziness . Stage fright can occur in people of all experiences and backgrounds, from those who are completely new to being in front of an audience to those who have done so for years. It

1513-399: A natural pheromone-containing solution, it has been shown that the impairment was associated with defective detection of related pheromones, and with changes in their inborn preference for pheromones related to sexual and reproductive activities. Lastly, alleviation of an acute fear response because a friendly peer (or in biological language: an affiliative conspecific ) tends and befriends

1602-412: A new play, they’re the ones who should be nervous. Notes Sources Fear Fear is an intensely unpleasant emotion in response to perceiving or recognizing a danger or threat . Fear causes psychological changes that may produce behavioral reactions such as mounting an aggressive response or fleeing the threat. Fear in human beings may occur in response to a certain stimulus occurring in

1691-542: A rat perceived alarm pheromones, it increased its defensive and risk assessment behavior, and its acoustic startle reflex was enhanced. It was not until 2011 that a link between severe pain, neuroinflammation and alarm pheromones release in rats was found: real time RT-PCR analysis of rat brain tissues indicated that shocking the footpad of a rat increased its production of proinflammatory cytokines in deep brain structures, namely of IL-1β , heteronuclear Corticotropin-releasing hormone and c-fos mRNA expressions in both

1780-403: A response to the stimulus in the form of fear or aggression commences, the amygdalae may elicit the release of hormones into the body to put the person into a state of alertness, in which they are ready to move, run, fight, etc. This defensive response is generally referred to in physiology as the fight-or-flight response regulated by the hypothalamus, part of the limbic system . Once the person

1869-414: A result of learning. This has been studied in psychology as fear conditioning , beginning with John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment in 1920, which was inspired after observing a child with an irrational fear of dogs. In this study, an 11-month-old boy was conditioned to fear a white rat in the laboratory. The fear became generalized to include other white, furry objects, such as a rabbit, dog, and even

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1958-476: A separate experiment, rats with lesions in the amygdala did not express fear or anxiety towards unwanted stimuli. These rats pulled on levers supplying food that sometimes sent out electrical shocks. While they learned to avoid pressing on them, they did not distance themselves from these shock-inducing levers. Several brain structures other than the amygdalae have also been observed to be activated when individuals are presented with fearful vs. neutral faces, namely

2047-435: A sound when sensing anxiety sweat was larger than when sensing exercise-induced sweat, as measured by electromyography analysis of the orbital muscle, which is responsible for the eyeblink component. This showed for the first time that fear chemosignals can modulate the startle reflex in humans without emotional mediation; fear chemosignals primed the recipient's "defensive behavior" prior to the subjects' conscious attention on

2136-552: A source of feedback or even stimulus change. Intrinsic feedback or information coming from within, muscle twitches, increased heart rate, are seen to be more important in SSDRs than extrinsic feedback, stimuli that comes from the external environment. Dr. Bolles found that most creatures have some intrinsic set of fears, to help assure survival of the species. Rats will run away from any shocking event, and pigeons will flap their wings harder when threatened. The wing flapping in pigeons and

2225-494: A term coined in analogy to keystone species . Pheromones may determine species compositions and affect rates of energy and material exchange in an ecological community . Thus pheromones generate structure in a food web and play critical roles in maintaining natural systems . Evidence of chemosensory alarm signals in humans has emerged slowly: Although alarm pheromones have not been physically isolated and their chemical structures have not been identified in humans so far, there

2314-401: Is called " social buffering ". The term is in analogy to the 1985 "buffering" hypothesis in psychology, where social support has been proven to mitigate the negative health effects of alarm pheromone mediated distress. The role of a "social pheromone" is suggested by the recent discovery that olfactory signals are responsible in mediating the "social buffering" in male rats. "Social buffering"

2403-657: Is commonly recognized in the population. Stage fright may, for example, have a negative impact on the individual's performance, such that it affects their confidence during job interviews , presentations, etc. It also affects athletes, teachers, actors, comedians, musicians, and politicians. Many people with no other problems in communication can experience stage fright, but some people with chronic stage fright also have social anxiety or social phobia which are chronic feelings of high anxiety in any social situation. Stage fright can also be seen in school situations, like stand-up projects and class speeches. When someone starts to feel

2492-478: Is determined by the level of fear as well as the specific context, such as environmental characteristics (escape route present, distance to refuge), the presence of a discrete and localized threat, the distance between threat and subject, threat characteristics (speed, size, directness of approach), the characteristics of the subject under threat (size, physical condition, speed, degree of crypsis , protective morphological structures), social conditions (group size), and

2581-428: Is evidence for their presence. Androstadienone , for example, a steroidal, endogenous odorant, is a pheromone candidate found in human sweat, axillary hair and plasma. The closely related compound androstenone is involved in communicating dominance, aggression or competition; sex hormone influences on androstenone perception in humans showed a high testosterone level related to heightened androstenone sensitivity in men,

2670-432: Is how animals survive in the wild. Humans and animals both share these species-specific defense reactions, such as the flight-or-fight, which also include pseudo-aggression, fake or intimidating aggression and freeze response to threats, which is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system . These SSDRs are learned very quickly through social interactions between others of the same species, other species, and interaction with

2759-524: Is in safe mode, meaning that there are no longer any potential threats surrounding them, the amygdalae will send this information to the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) where it is stored for similar future situations, which is known as memory consolidation . Some of the hormones involved during the state of fight-or-flight include epinephrine , which regulates heart rate and metabolism as well as dilating blood vessels and air passages, norepinephrine increasing heart rate, blood flow to skeletal muscles and

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2848-420: Is increased, which activates processes with the expected consequence of increasing consistency and decreasing arousal." In this context, it has been proposed that fear behavior is caused by an inconsistency between a preferred, or expected, situation and the actually perceived situation, and functions to remove the inconsistent stimulus from the perceptual field, for instance by fleeing or hiding, thereby resolving

2937-774: Is modulated by the process of cognition and learning. Thus, fear is judged as rational and appropriate, or irrational and inappropriate (or unconscious). An irrational fear is called a phobia . Fear is closely related to the emotion anxiety , which occurs as the result of often future threats that are perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable. The fear response serves survival by engendering appropriate behavioral responses, so it has been preserved throughout evolution . Sociological and organizational research also suggests that individuals' fears are not solely dependent on their nature but are also shaped by their social relations and culture, which guide their understanding of when and how much fear to feel. Many physiological changes in

3026-521: Is more customary. The performers took the stage to the recorded music of "They Call the Wind Mariah" from the musical Paint Your Wagon . The show featured Carey's main collaborator at the time Walter Afanasieff on keyboards along with a band. A gospel choir appeared on a few numbers, a practice that Carey would revive on some future tours. Dancers were present on stage, but Carey did not dance with them, an avoidance she would maintain until doing

3115-451: Is not something to be thwarted but allowed in a parent's presence if required. Developing a sense of equanimity to handle various situations is often advocated as an antidote to irrational fear and as an essential skill by a number of ancient philosophies. Fear of the unknown (FOTU) "may be a, or possibly the, fundamental fear" from early times when there were many threats to life. Although fear behavior varies from species to species, it

3204-489: Is often divided into two main categories; namely, avoidance/flight and immobility. To these, different researchers have added different categories, such as threat display and attack, protective responses (including startle and looming responses), defensive burying, and social responses (including alarm vocalizations and submission). Finally, immobility is often divided into freezing and tonic immobility . The decision as to which particular fear behavior to perform

3293-522: Is to defend themselves and at the same time to inform members of the same species of danger and leads to observable behavior change like freezing, defensive behavior, or dispersion depending on circumstances and species. For example, stressed rats release odorant cues that cause other rats to move away from the source of the signal. After the discovery of pheromones in 1959, alarm pheromones were first described in 1968 in ants and earthworms, and four years later also found in mammals, both mice and rats. Over

3382-473: The Miami Arena before 15,000 people drew national media attention. Carey later related that "I was OK until I had to walk up this ramp on to the stage and I heard this deafening scream and it was kinda like everything in my life, this whole incredible whirlwind I'd been going through, it had all been leading up to that insane moment and there I was.... And then they killed me. Not the audience – they knew it

3471-618: The Worcester Centrum , and got "rave reviews" as a result. The Boston Globe called it "a spectacular performance [which] bowled over the crowd with a confidence that grew before their very eyes", after Carey "shook off her nervousness at the start." Further, her highest-visibility performance in the tour closer at Madison Square Garden in New York City got a very positive review from Jon Pareles of The New York Times , although The Bergen Record gave mixed notices to

3560-477: The adrenaline released from the " fight or flight " bodily response from attaching to the heart, lungs and other parts of the body. This reduces or eliminates the physical symptoms of performance anxiety including increased heart rate ( tachycardia ), rapid breathing ( hyperventilation ), dry mouth, trembling, shaky voice, and sweating. Propranolol is not an officially approved treatment for performance anxiety; however, past studies and patient experiences indicate

3649-459: The amygdala ), it was proposed that a person learns to fear regardless of whether they themselves have experienced trauma, or if they have observed the fear in others. In a study completed by Andreas Olsson, Katherine I. Nearing and Elizabeth A. Phelps, the amygdala were affected both when subjects observed someone else being submitted to an aversive event, knowing that the same treatment awaited themselves, and when subjects were subsequently placed in

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3738-417: The cenozoic time period (the still-ongoing geological era encompassing the last 66 million of history). Still others, such as fear of mice and insects, may be unique to humans and developed during the paleolithic and neolithic time periods (when mice and insects become important carriers of infectious diseases and harmful for crops and stored foods). Nonhuman animals and humans innovate specific fears as

3827-407: The paraventricular nucleus and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis , and it increased stress hormone levels in plasma ( corticosterone ). The neurocircuit for how rats perceive alarm pheromones was shown to be related to the hypothalamus , brainstem , and amygdalae , all of which are evolutionary ancient structures deep inside or in the case of the brainstem underneath the brain away from

3916-615: The prefrontal cortex and the amygdala . The visual exploration of an emotional face does not follow a fixed pattern but modulated by the emotional content of the face. Scheller et al. found that participants paid more attention to the eyes when recognising fearful or neutral faces, while the mouth was fixated on when happy faces are presented, irrespective of task demands and spatial locations of face stimuli. These findings were replicated when fearful eyes are presented and when canonical face configurations are distorted for fearful, neutral and happy expressions. The brain structures that are

4005-402: The "recipient" rat (the rat perceiving the pheromone) depending which body region they were released from: Pheromone production from the face modified behavior in the recipient rat, e.g. caused sniffing or movement, whereas pheromone secreted from the rat's anal area induced autonomic nervous system stress responses, like an increase in core body temperature. Further experiments showed that when

4094-447: The "unknown". The irrational fear can branch out to many areas such as the hereafter, the next ten years or even tomorrow. Chronic irrational fear has deleterious effects since the elicitor stimulus is commonly absent or perceived from delusions. Such fear can create comorbidity with the anxiety disorder umbrella. Being scared may cause people to experience anticipatory fear of what may lie ahead rather than planning and evaluating for

4183-457: The 1998 Butterfly World Tour , and would not tour the continental United States again until seven years later during the 2000 Rainbow World Tour . Notes: Stage fright Stage fright or performance anxiety is the anxiety , fear , or persistent phobia that may be aroused in an individual by the requirement to perform in front of an audience , real or imagined, whether actually or potentially (for example, when performing before

4272-608: The acoustic startle reflex level. In analogy to the social buffering of rats and honeybees in response to chemosignals, induction of empathy by "smelling anxiety" of another person has been found in humans. A study from 2013 provided brain imaging evidence that human responses to fear chemosignals may be gender-specific . Researchers collected alarm-induced sweat and exercise-induced sweat from donors extracted it, pooled it and presented it to 16 unrelated people undergoing functional brain MRI . While stress-induced sweat from males produced

4361-446: The alarm pheromone, and their preference/avoidance for odors from cylinders containing the pheromone, showed that the pheromone had very low volatility . In 1993 a connection between alarm chemosignals in mice and their immune response was found. Pheromone production in mice was found to be associated with or mediated by the pituitary gland in 1994. In 2004, it was demonstrated that rats' alarm pheromones had different effects on

4450-447: The amount of experience with the type of the threat. Often laboratory studies with rats are conducted to examine the acquisition and extinction of conditioned fear responses. In 2004, researchers conditioned rats ( Rattus norvegicus ) to fear a certain stimulus, through electric shock. The researchers were able to then cause an extinction of this conditioned fear, to a point that no medications or drugs were able to further aid in

4539-487: The amygdala are generated by activation of the neurons in the region. Experimental data supports the notion that synaptic plasticity of the neurons leading to the lateral amygdalae occurs with fear conditioning. In some cases, this forms permanent fear responses such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or a phobia . MRI and fMRI scans have shown that the amygdalae in individuals diagnosed with such disorders including bipolar or panic disorder are larger and wired for

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4628-408: The blood stream causing a chain of reactions to occur. This bodily response is known as the " fight or flight " syndrome, a naturally occurring process in the body done to protect itself from harm. "The neck muscles contract, bringing the head down and shoulders up, while the back muscles draw the spine into a concave curve. This, in turn, pushes the pelvis forward and pulls the genitals up, slumping

4717-457: The body are associated with fear, summarized as the fight-or-flight response . An innate response for coping with danger, it works by accelerating the breathing rate ( hyperventilation ), heart rate, vasoconstriction of the peripheral blood vessels leading to blood pooling, dilating the pupils, increasing muscle tension including the muscles attached to each hair follicle to contract and causing "goosebumps", or more clinically, piloerection (making

4806-426: The body into a classic fetal position ". This is also noted to have effects on sexual performance and physiology, which can be sometimes attributed to psychological barriers. In trying to resist this position, the body will begin to shake in places such as the legs and hands. Several other things happen besides this. Muscles in the body contract, causing them to be tense and ready to attack. Second, "blood vessels in

4895-1028: The body with deep breaths, mentally preparing oneself, and redirecting one's attention are techniques that may help with minimizing stage fright. Although it is a common assumption that alcohol can be used to calm nerves, other forms of treatment prove to be much better at treating stage fright. Alcohol consumption may actually affect one's performance and lead to lapses in memory and overall absentmindedness. Many well-known public performers have been afflicted with stage fright and were able to overcome their problem, including Ariel Pink , Al Jolson , Lily Pons , Brian Wilson , Virginia O'Brien , Michael Gambon , Grimes , Lorde , Carly Simon , Jason Alexander , Mose Allison , Maya Angelou , David Brenner , Peter Coyote , Olympia Dukakis , Richard Lewis , Roy Orbison , Barbra Streisand , Adele , David Warner , Niall Horan , Frankie Howerd , Mike Yarwood , Ian Holm , Lady Gaga , Mariah Carey , Frankie Boyle , Peter Gabriel , Donald Fagen , John Lydon , Meg White (which

4984-520: The brain, there are various regions of the brain involved in deciphering fear in humans and other nonhuman species. The amygdala communicates both directions between the prefrontal cortex , hypothalamus , the sensory cortex , the hippocampus , thalamus , septum , and the brainstem . The amygdala plays an important role in SSDR, such as the ventral amygdalofugal, which is essential for associative learning , and SSDRs are learned through interaction with

5073-414: The capacity to fear is part of human nature . Many studies have found that certain fears (e.g. animals, heights) are much more common than others (e.g. flowers, clouds). These fears are also easier to induce in the laboratory. This phenomenon is known as preparedness . Because early humans that were quick to fear dangerous situations were more likely to survive and reproduce; preparedness is theorized to be

5162-418: The center of most neurobiological events associated with fear are the two amygdalae , located behind the pituitary gland. Each amygdala is part of a circuitry of fear learning. They are essential for proper adaptation to stress and specific modulation of emotional learning memory. In the presence of a threatening stimulus, the amygdalae generate the secretion of hormones that influence fear and aggression. Once

5251-449: The cortex, and involved in the fight-or-flight response , as is the case in humans. Alarm pheromone-induced anxiety in rats has been used to evaluate the degree to which anxiolytics can alleviate anxiety in humans. For this, the change in the acoustic startle reflex of rats with alarm pheromone-induced anxiety (i.e. reduction of defensiveness) has been measured. Pretreatment of rats with one of five anxiolytics used in clinical medicine

5340-559: The development of the olfactory bulb and odor discrimination and it is highly expressed in developing rat brains, but absent in most regions of adult rat brains. Conditional deletion of the MAPK7gene in mouse neural stem cells impairs several pheromone-mediated behaviors, including aggression and mating in male mice. These behavior impairments were not caused by a reduction in the level of testosterone, by physical immobility, by heightened fear or anxiety or by depression. Using mouse urine as

5429-414: The drug is effective at reducing physical symptoms. Propranolol does not help with the mental symptoms of anxiety including the emotional feeling of nervousness since the drug does not alter the neurochemistry of the brain unlike typical medications prescribed for other forms of anxiety such as anti-depressants . There are also ways to treat performance anxiety without the use of medication. Relaxing

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5518-454: The environment and others of the same species. An emotional response is created only after the signals have been relayed between the different regions of the brain, and activating the sympathetic nervous systems; which controls the flight, fight, freeze, fright, and faint response . Often a damaged amygdala can cause impairment in the recognition of fear (like the human case of patient S.M. ). This impairment can cause different species to lack

5607-416: The environment. These acquired sets of reactions or responses are not easily forgotten. The animal that survives is the animal that already knows what to fear and how to avoid this threat. An example in humans is the reaction to the sight of a snake, many jump backwards before cognitively realizing what they are jumping away from, and in some cases, it is a stick rather than a snake. As with many functions of

5696-442: The extinction process. The rats showed signs of avoidance learning, not fear, but simply avoiding the area that brought pain to the test rats. The avoidance learning of rats is seen as a conditioned response , and therefore the behavior can be unconditioned, as supported by the earlier research. Species-specific defense reactions (SSDRs) or avoidance learning in nature is the specific tendency to avoid certain threats or stimuli, it

5785-421: The extremities constrict". This can leave a person with the feeling of cold fingers, toes, nose, and ears. Constricted blood vessels also gives the body extra blood flow to the vital organs. Negative emotionality indicated more than 50% of individual variations in performance anxiety in musicians, according to research on performance anxiety and the roles of personality and experience in musicians. Additionally,

5874-559: The facial expression of fear and other emotions. Fear of victimization is a function of perceived risk and seriousness of potential harm. According to surveys, some of the most common fears are of demons and ghosts , the existence of evil powers, cockroaches , spiders , snakes , heights , water , enclosed spaces , tunnels , bridges , needles , social rejection , failure , examinations , and public speaking . Regionally some may more so fear terrorist attacks , death , war , criminal or gang violence , being alone ,

5963-453: The future, nuclear war , flying , clowns , intimacy , people , and driving . Fear of the unknown or irrational fear is caused by negative thinking ( worry ) which arises from anxiety accompanied by a subjective sense of apprehension or dread. Irrational fear shares a common neural pathway with other fears, a pathway that engages the nervous system to mobilize bodily resources in the face of danger or threat. Many people are scared of

6052-448: The gene stathmin show no avoidance learning, or a lack of fear, and will often walk directly up to cats and be eaten. Animals use these SSDRs to continue living, to help increase their chance of fitness , by surviving long enough to procreate. Humans and animals alike have created fear to know what should be avoided, and this fear can be learned through association with others in the community, or learned through personal experience with

6141-434: The inconsistency. This approach puts fear in a broader perspective, also involving aggression and curiosity . When the inconsistency between perception and expectancy is small, learning as a result of curiosity reduces inconsistency by updating expectancy to match perception. If the inconsistency is larger, fear or aggressive behavior may be employed to alter the perception in order to make it match expectancy, depending on

6230-477: The meaning, i.e. on the emotional level, rather than the strength of chemosensory cues from each gender, i.e. the perceptual level. An approach-avoidance task was set up where volunteers seeing either an angry or a happy cartoon face on a computer screen pushed away or pulled toward them a joystick as fast as possible. Volunteers smelling androstadienone, masked with clove oil scent responded faster, especially to angry faces than those smelling clove oil only, which

6319-457: The natural world. He theorized the species-specific defense reaction (SSDR). There are three forms of SSDRs: flight, fight (pseudo-aggression), or freeze. Even domesticated animals have SSDRs, and in those moments it is seen that animals revert to atavistic standards and become "wild" again. Dr. Bolles states that responses are often dependent on the reinforcement of a safety signal, and not the aversive conditioned stimuli. This safety signal can be

6408-530: The next two decades, identification and characterization of these pheromones proceeded in all manner of insects and sea animals, including fish, but it was not until 1990 that more insight into mammalian alarm pheromones was gleaned. In 1985, a link between odors released by stressed rats and pain perception was discovered: unstressed rats exposed to these odors developed opioid-mediated analgesia. In 1997, researchers found that bees became less responsive to pain after they had been stimulated with isoamyl acetate ,

6497-545: The occipito cerebellar regions including the fusiform gyrus and the inferior parietal / superior temporal gyri. Fearful eyes, brows and mouth seem to separately reproduce these brain responses. Scientists from Zurich studies show that the hormone oxytocin related to stress and sex reduces activity in your brain fear center. In threatening situations, insects, aquatic organisms, birds, reptiles, and mammals emit odorant substances, initially called alarm substances, which are chemical signals now called alarm pheromones . This

6586-496: The present, or in anticipation or expectation of a future threat perceived as a risk to oneself. The fear response arises from the perception of danger leading to confrontation with or escape from/avoiding the threat (also known as the fight-or-flight response ), which in extreme cases of fear ( horror and terror ) can be a freeze response . The fear response is also implicated in a number of mental disorders , particularly anxiety disorders . In humans and other animals, fear

6675-442: The release of glucose from energy stores, and cortisol which increases blood sugar, increases circulating neutrophilic leukocytes, calcium amongst other things. After a situation which incites fear occurs, the amygdalae and hippocampus record the event through synaptic plasticity . The stimulation to the hippocampus will cause the individual to remember many details surrounding the situation. Plasticity and memory formation in

6764-572: The same. For example, "continuation of scholarly education" is perceived by many educators as a risk that may cause them fear and stress, and they would rather teach things they've been taught than go and do research. The ambiguity of situations that tend to be uncertain and unpredictable can cause anxiety in addition to other psychological and physical problems in some populations; especially those who engage it constantly, for example, in war-ridden places or in places of conflict, terrorism, abuse, etc. Poor parenting that instills fear can also debilitate

6853-645: The scattered running of rats are considered species-specific defense reactions or behaviors. Bolles believed that SSDRs are conditioned through Pavlovian conditioning, and not operant conditioning; SSDRs arise from the association between the environmental stimuli and adverse events. Michael S. Fanselow conducted an experiment, to test some specific defense reactions, he observed that rats in two different shock situations responded differently, based on instinct or defensive topography, rather than contextual information. Species-specific defense responses are created out of fear, and are essential for survival. Rats that lack

6942-426: The sensation of being scared or nervous they start to experience anxiety. According to a Harvard Mental Health Letter, "Anxiety usually has physical symptoms that may include a racing heart, a dry mouth , a shaky voice, blushing , trembling , sweating , lightheadedness , and nausea ". It triggers the body to activate its sympathetic nervous system . This process takes place when the body releases adrenaline into

7031-417: The sensation of fear, and often can become overly confident, confronting larger peers, or walking up to predatory creatures. Robert C. Bolles (1970), a researcher at University of Washington, wanted to understand species-specific defense reactions and avoidance learning among animals, but found that the theories of avoidance learning and the tools that were used to measure this tendency were out of touch with

7120-470: The series of physiological changes, the consciousness realizes an emotion of fear. There are observable physical reactions in individuals who experience fear. An individual might experience a feeling of dizziness, lightheaded, like they are being choked, sweating, shortness of breath, vomiting or nausea, numbness or shaking and any other like symptoms. These bodily reactions informs the individual that they are afraid and should proceed to remove or get away from

7209-435: The size of the inconsistency as well as the specific context. Aggressive behavior is assumed to alter perception by forcefully manipulating it into matching the expected situation, while in some cases thwarted escape may also trigger aggressive behavior in an attempt to remove the thwarting stimulus. In order to improve our understanding of the neural and behavioral mechanisms of adaptive and maladaptive fear, investigators use

7298-480: The sold-out show. But overall the impression was, especially framed by the opening night, that most critics gave negative reviews to the Music Box Tour. In response, Carey said, "As soon as you have a big success, a lot of people don't like that. There's nothing I can do about it. All I can do is make music I believe in." Carey would avoid North America on her next two tours, the 1996 Daydream World Tour and

7387-586: The stimulus that is causing that fear. An influential categorization of stimuli causing fear was proposed by psychologist Jeffrey Alan Gray ; namely, intensity , novelty , special evolutionary dangers, stimuli arising during social interaction, and conditioned stimuli. Another categorization was proposed by Archer, who, besides conditioned fear stimuli, categorized fear-evoking (as well as aggression -evoking) stimuli into three groups; namely, pain , novelty, and frustration , although he also described " looming ", which refers to an object rapidly moving towards

7476-831: The visual sensors of a subject, and can be categorized as "intensity". Russell described a more functional categorization of fear-evoking stimuli, in which for instance novelty is a variable affecting more than one category: 1) Predator stimuli (including movement, suddenness, proximity, but also learned and innate predator stimuli); 2) Physical environmental dangers (including intensity and heights); 3) Stimuli associated with increased risk of predation and other dangers (including novelty, openness, illumination, and being alone); 4) Stimuli stemming from conspecifics (including novelty, movement, and spacing behavior); 5) Species-predictable fear stimuli and experience (special evolutionary dangers); and 6) Fear stimuli that are not species predictable (conditioned fear stimuli). Although many fears are learned,

7565-532: Was able to reduce their anxiety: namely midazolam , phenelzine (a nonselective monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitor), propranolol , a nonselective beta blocker , clonidine , an alpha 2 adrenergic agonist or CP-154,526 , a corticotropin-releasing hormone antagonist . Faulty development of odor discrimination impairs the perception of pheromones and pheromone-related behavior, like aggressive behavior and mating in male rats: The enzyme Mitogen-activated protein kinase 7 (MAPK7) has been implicated in regulating

7654-508: Was also observed to mitigate the conditioned fear responses of honeybees. A bee colony exposed to an environment of high threat of predation did not show increased aggression and aggressive-like gene expression patterns in individual bees, but decreased aggression. That the bees did not simply habituate to threats is suggested by the fact that the disturbed colonies also decreased their foraging. Biologists have proposed in 2012 that fear pheromones evolved as molecules of "keystone significance",

7743-434: Was interpreted as androstadienone-related activation of the fear system. A potential mechanism of action is, that androstadienone alters the "emotional face processing". Androstadienone is known to influence the activity of the fusiform gyrus which is relevant for face recognition . Cognitive-consistency theories assume that "when two or more simultaneously active cognitive structures are logically inconsistent, arousal

7832-534: Was my first show, they were very supportive. I got really bad reviews, though. Well, there were a lot of critics out to get me: this girl's sold all these albums, she's never toured, let's get her. So they did. I turned on the TV in bed that night and the CNN guy was saying, 'The reviews are in and it's bad news for Mariah Carey.' It really hurt me a lot." Carey expressed that she used her anger to improve her next performance at

7921-490: Was so extreme that it led to her early retirement from the music industry) and Amanda Seyfried . In some cases, famous stars have struggled to cope with their anxiety. Hugh Grant said on starring in the 2007 film Music and Lyrics that he "did the whole film full of lorazepam ." Not every performer suffers from stage fright. Ethel Merman said: What’s there to worry about? I know my lines. … Why should I be nervous on opening night? The people who paid for tickets for

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