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62-465: The American Institute of Musicology ( AIM ) is a musicological organization that researches, promotes and produces publications on early music . Founded in 1944 by Armen Carapetyan , the AIM's chief objective is the publication of modern editions of medieval , Renaissance and early Baroque compositions and works of music theory . The breadth and quality of publications produced by the AIM constitutes

124-426: A BMus or a BA in music (or a related field such as history) and in many cases an MA in musicology. Some individuals apply directly from a bachelor's degree to a PhD, and in these cases, they may not receive an MA. In the 2010s, given the increasingly interdisciplinary nature of university graduate programs, some applicants for musicology PhD programs may have academic training both in music and outside of music (e.g.,

186-498: A canon (1337). He often accompanied King John on his various trips, many of them military expeditions around Europe (including Prague ). He was named the canon of Verdun in 1330, Arras in 1332, and Reims in 1337. In 1346, King John was killed fighting at the Battle of Crécy , and Machaut, who was famous and much in demand, entered the service of various other aristocrats and rulers, including King John's daughter Bonne (who died of

248-510: A graduate school , supervising MA and PhD students, giving them guidance on the preparation of their theses and dissertations. Some musicology professors may take on senior administrative positions in their institution, such as Dean or Chair of the School of Music. The vast majority of major musicologists and music historians from past generations have been men, as in the 19th century and early 20th century; women's involvement in teaching music

310-592: A 19-year-old girl, Péronne d'Armentières, although the accuracy of the work as autobiography is contested. He died in 1377. Machaut's music comprises a wide variety, from complex masses to short songs, and despite the differences of genre, most still contain "typical Machaut motifs". He lived after the flowering of both the secular troubadour and trouvère song movements and the ars antiqua church style. The musicologist Gilbert Reaney notes that "before [Machaut], composers either wrote songs or church music. Machaut did both, though it could be said that he neglected

372-510: A Dieu commant. Since I am forgotten by you, sweet friend, To a love life, and to happiness, I bid goodbye. Unlucky was the day I put my love in you, Since I am forgotten by you, sweet friend. Yet I will keep what I have promised you, Which is that never will I have another lover. Since I am forgotten by you, sweet friend, To a love life, and to happiness, I bid goodbye. When he died in 1377, other composers such as F. Andrieu wrote elegies lamenting his death. Machaut's poetry had

434-435: A PhD from Harvard University . One of her best known works is Feminine Endings (1991), which covers musical constructions of gender and sexuality, gendered aspects of traditional music theory, gendered sexuality in musical narrative, music as a gendered discourse and issues affecting women musicians. Other notable women scholars include: A list of open-access European journals in the domains of music theory and/or analysis

496-557: A central contribution to the study, practice and performance of early music. Among the series it produces are the Corpus mensurabilis musicae (CMM), Corpus Scriptorum de Musica (CSM) and Corpus of Early Keyboard Music (CEKM). In CMM specifically, the AIM has published the entire surviving oeuvres of a considerable amount of composers , most notably the complete works of Guillaume de Machaut and Guillaume Du Fay , among many others. The CSM, which focuses on music theory, has published

558-413: A close focus, as in the case of scholars who examine the relationship between words and music for a given composer's art songs . On the other hand, some scholars take a broader view and assess the place of a given type of music, such as the symphony in society using techniques drawn from other fields, such as economics, sociology or philosophy. New musicology is a term applied since the late 1980s to

620-638: A composer's life and works, the developments of styles and genres (such as baroque concertos), the social function of music for a particular group of people, (such as court music), or modes of performance at a particular place and time (such as Johann Sebastian Bach's choir in Leipzig). Like the comparable field of art history , different branches and schools of historical musicology emphasize different types of musical works and approaches to music. There are also national differences in various definitions of historical musicology. In theory, "music history" could refer to

682-497: A cyclic composition. Guillaume de Machaut's lyric output comprises around 400 poems, including 235 ballades, 76 rondeaux, 39 virelais, 24 lais, 10 complaintes , and 7 chansons royales , and Machaut did much to perfect and codify these fixed forms. Some of his lyric output is embedded in his narrative poems or "dits", such as Le remède de fortune ("The Cure of Ill Fortune") which includes one of each genre of lyric poetry, and Le voir dit ("A True Story"), but most are included in

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744-566: A direct effect on the works of Eustache Deschamps , Jean Froissart , Christine de Pizan , René d'Anjou and Geoffrey Chaucer , among many others. There exists the hypothetical (though improbable) possibility that Chaucer and Machaut could have met when Chaucer was taken prisoner near Reims in 1359, or in Calais in 1360, with both poets on official business for the ratification of the Treaty of Brétigny (Machaut with his patron Jean de Berry, who

806-532: A historical instrument is usually part of conservatory or other performance training. However, many top researchers in performance practice are also excellent musicians. Music performance research (or music performance science) is strongly associated with music psychology. It aims to document and explain the psychological, physiological, sociological and cultural details of how music is actually performed (rather than how it should be performed). The approach to research tends to be systematic and empirical and to involve

868-533: A particular event, such as M18, "Bone Pastor/Bone Pastor/Bone Pastor." Machaut mostly composed in five genres: the lai, the virelai, the motet, the ballade, and the rondeau. In these genres, Machaut retained the basic formes fixes , but often utilized creative text setting and cadences . For example, most rondeau phrases end with a long melisma on the penultimate syllable. However, a few of Machaut's rondeaux, such as R18 "Puis qu'en oubli", are mostly syllabic in treatment. Machaut's motets often contain sacred texts in

930-412: A separate, unordered section entitled Les loanges des dames . That the majority of his lyrics are not set to music (in manuscripts, music and non-music sections are separate) suggests that he normally wrote the text before setting some to music. Other than his Latin motets of a religious nature and some poems invoking the horrors of war and captivity, the vast majority of Machaut's lyric poems reflect

992-731: A strong record of publishing in peer-reviewed journals. Some PhD-holding musicologists are only able to find insecure positions as sessional lecturers . The job tasks of a musicologist are the same as those of a professor in any other humanities discipline: teaching undergraduate and/or graduate classes in their area of specialization and, in many cases some general courses (such as Music Appreciation or Introduction to Music History); conducting research in their area of expertise, publishing articles about their research in peer-reviewed journals, authors book chapters, books or textbooks; traveling to conferences to give talks on their research and learn about research in their field; and, if their program includes

1054-442: A student may apply with a BMus and an MA in psychology). In music education, individuals may hold an M.Ed and an Ed.D . Most musicologists work as instructors, lecturers or professors in colleges, [universities or conservatories. The job market for tenure track professor positions is very competitive. Entry-level applicants must hold a completed PhD or the equivalent degree and applicants to more senior professor positions must have

1116-686: A substantial, intensive fieldwork component, often involving long-term residence within the community studied. Closely related to ethnomusicology is the emerging branch of sociomusicology . For instance, Ko (2011) proposed the hypothesis of "Biliterate and Trimusical" in Hong Kong sociomusicology. Popular music studies, known, "misleadingly", as popular musicology , emerged in the 1980s as an increasing number of musicologists, ethnomusicologists and other varieties of historians of American and European culture began to write about popular music past and present. The first journal focusing on popular music studies

1178-530: A wide body of work emphasizing cultural study, analysis and criticism of music. Such work may be based on feminist , gender studies , queer theory or postcolonial theory, or the work of Theodor W. Adorno . Although New Musicology emerged from within historical musicology, the emphasis on cultural study within the Western art music tradition places New Musicology at the junction between historical, ethnological and sociological research in music. New musicology

1240-499: Is a consensus that this mass is at best a forerunner to the later 15th-century cyclic masses by the likes of Josquin des Prez . Machaut's mass differs from these in the following ways: (1) he does not hold a tonal centre throughout the entire work, as the mass uses two distinct modes (one for the Kyrie, Gloria, and Credo, another for Sanctus, Agnus and Ite missa est); (2) there is no extended melodic theme that clearly runs through all

1302-425: Is a field of study that describes the elements of music and includes the development and application of methods for composing and for analyzing music through both notation and, on occasion, musical sound itself. Broadly, theory may include any statement, belief or conception of or about music ( Boretz , 1995) . A person who studies or practices music theory is a music theorist. Some music theorists attempt to explain

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1364-638: Is available on the website of the European Network for Theory & Analysis of Music . A more complete list of open-access journals in theory and analysis can be found on the website of the Société Belge d'Analyse Musicale (in French). Guillaume de Machaut Guillaume de Machaut ( French: [ɡijom də maʃo] , Old French: [ɡiˈʎawmə də maˈtʃaw(θ)] ; also Machau and Machault ; c.  1300 – April 1377)

1426-470: Is often a part of music history, though pure analysis or the development of new tools of music analysis is more likely to be seen in the field of music theory. Music historians create a number of written products, ranging from journal articles describing their current research, new editions of musical works, biographies of composers and other musicians, book-length studies or university textbook chapters or entire textbooks. Music historians may examine issues in

1488-439: Is the order that G. de Machaut wants his book to have"). The poem below, Puis qu'en oubli , is his 18th rondeau. Puis qu'en oubli sui de vous, dous amis, Vie amoureuse et joie a Dieu commant. Mar vi le jour que m'amour en vous mis, Puis qu'en oubli sui de vous, dous amis. Mais ce tenray que je vous ay promis, C'est que ja mais n'aray nul autre amant. Puis qu'en oubli sui de vous, dous amis, Vie amoureuse et joie

1550-440: Is the set of phenomena surrounding the cognitive modeling of music. When musicologists carry out research using computers, their research often falls under the field of computational musicology . Music therapy is a specialized form of applied musicology which is sometimes considered more closely affiliated with health fields, and other times regarded as part of musicology proper. The 19th-century philosophical trends that led to

1612-529: The American College of Tehran in 1927 and studied in Paris and New York , at one point under Gian Francesco Malipiero . Carapetyan then received both a Master's degree and PhD in musicology from Harvard University . At the time, there was substantial research devoted to the literature, architecture and visual arts of the medieval and Renaissance periods, but comparatively little on music of

1674-582: The Black Death in 1349), her sons Jean de Berry and Charles (later Charles V , Duke of Normandy), and others such as Charles II of Navarre . Machaut survived the Black Death that devastated Europe, and spent his later years living in Reims composing and supervising the creation of his complete-works manuscripts. His poem Le voir dit (probably 1361–1365) purports to recount a late love affair with

1736-629: The romance, or "roman" of the same period) follow many of the conventions of the Roman de la rose , including the use of allegorical dreams ( songes ), allegorical characters, and the situation of the narrator-lover attempting to return toward or satisfy his lady. Machaut is also the author of a poetic chronicle of the chivalric deeds of Peter I of Cyprus , (the Prise d'Alexandrie ), and of poetic works of consolation and moral philosophy. His unusual self-reflective usage of himself (as his lyrical persona) as

1798-532: The 15th century. Machaut composed in a wide range of styles and forms and was crucial in developing the motet and secular song forms (particularly the lai and the formes fixes : rondeau , virelai and ballade ). Among his only surviving sacred works, Messe de Nostre Dame , is the earliest known complete setting of the Ordinary of the Mass attributable to a single composer. Other notable works include

1860-408: The AIM maintained an advisory board of noted musicologists from around the world. Such scholars included Willi Apel , Gustave Reese and Egon Wellesz among many others; by 1949, however, Carapetyan assumed solo leadership until his death in 1992. As part of Carapetyan's original plan to include musical performances in the AIM, an early music choir was created in 1947, but soon disbanded. Also part of

1922-504: The AIM maintains are: The AIM publishes Musica Disciplina (MD), an annual academic journal for scholarly work on medieval, Renaissance and early Baroque music . Articles in the journal include analysis, studies and inventory of primary sources relating to early music. Founded in 1946, the journal was known as the Journal of Renaissance and Baroque Music for its first year of publication. MD does not engage in reviews. Carapetyan

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1984-402: The area of liturgical church music." Besides his mass, Hoquetus David and a few Latin motets, Machaut's surviving output is exclusively secular. Regardless, Reaney notes that his unique mastery of both secular and sacred Western music is only precedented by the work of Adam de la Halle . The lyrics of Machaut's works almost always dealt with courtly love . A few works exist to commemorate

2046-458: The claim that the mass is cyclic is the possibility that the piece was written or assembled for performance at a specific celebration. The possibility that it was for the coronation of Charles V , which was once widely accepted, is thought unlikely in modern scholarship. The composer's intention that the piece be performed as one entire mass setting makes the Messe de Nostre Dame generally considered

2108-570: The collection and analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data. The findings of music performance research can often be applied in music education. Musicologists in tenure track professor positions typically hold a PhD in musicology. In the 1960s and 1970s, some musicologists obtained professor positions with an MA as their highest degree, but in the 2010s, the PhD is the standard minimum credential for tenure track professor positions. As part of their initial training, musicologists typically complete

2170-477: The complete works of two of the most significant early European composers, Guillaume de Machaut and Guillaume Du Fay . Other composers whose entire surviving oeuvres have been published by AIM include Pierre de la Rue , Adrian Willaert , Jacob Clemens non Papa , Cipriano de Rore , Loyset Compère , Thomas Crecquillon and Romero ; modern editions of famous musical treatises include those by Guido of Arezzo and Jean Philippe Rameau . The primary series that

2232-573: The conventions of courtly love , and involve statements of service to a lady and the poet's pleasure and pains. In technical terms, Machaut was a master of elaborate rhyme schemes, and this concern makes him a precursor to the Grands Rhétoriqueurs of the 15th century. Guillaume de Machaut's narrative output is dominated by the "dit" (literally "spoken", i.e. a poem not meant to be sung). These first-person narrative poems (all but one are written in octosyllabic rhymed couplets , like

2294-419: The creation of melody . Music psychology applies the content and methods of psychology to understand how music is created, perceived, responded to, and incorporated into individuals' and societies' daily lives. Its primary branches include cognitive musicology , which emphasizes the use of computational models for human musical abilities and cognition, and the cognitive neuroscience of music , which studies

2356-483: The earliest European composers on whom considerable biographical information is available, has an unprecedented amount of surviving music , in part due to his own involvement in his manuscripts' creation and preservation. Machaut embodies the culmination of the poet-composer tradition stretching back to the traditions of troubadour and trouvère . His poetry was greatly admired and imitated by other poets, including Geoffrey Chaucer and Eustache Deschamps , well into

2418-484: The history and theory of the visual and plastic arts and architecture; linguistics , literature and theater ; religion and theology ; and sport. Musical knowledge is applied within medicine, education and music therapy—which, effectively, are parent disciplines of applied musicology. Music history or historical musicology is concerned with the composition, performance, reception and criticism of music over time. Historical studies of music are for example concerned with

2480-471: The history of musical traditions, the origins of works, and the biographies of composers. Ethnomusicologists draw from anthropology (particularly field research ) to understand how and why people make music. Systematic musicology includes music theory , aesthetics , pedagogy , musical acoustics , the science and technology of musical instruments , and the musical implications of physiology, psychology, sociology, philosophy and computing. Cognitive musicology

2542-419: The movements, and the mass does not use the parody technique; (3) there is considerable evidence that this mass was not composed in one creative act. The fact that the movements were placed together does not mean they were conceived as such. Nevertheless, the mass can be said to be stylistically consistent, and certainly the chosen chants are all celebrations of Mary, the mother of Jesus. Also adding weight to

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2604-497: The narrator of his dits yields some personal philosophical insights as well. At the end of his life, Machaut wrote a poetic treatise on his craft (his Prologue ). This reflects on his conception of the organization of poetry into set genres and rhyme schemes, and the ordering of these genres into distinct sections of manuscripts. This preoccupation with ordering his oeuvre is reflected in an index to MS A entitled "Vesci l'ordonance que G. de Machaut veut qu'il ait en son livre" ("Here

2666-590: The original plan, the AIM held advanced course on early music in the summers. The first was near the headquarters in Rome, with the second at the Torre di Bellosguardo  [ it ] in Florence . The chief purpose of the AIM is to produce high-quality modern editions of early music compositions and works of music theory . Since 1946, the AIM has produced over 650 publications on a variety of topics. These include

2728-530: The particular stages of history are understood & distinguished as ancient to modern . Comparative methods became more widespread in musicology beginning around 1880. The parent disciplines of musicology include: Musicology also has two central, practically oriented sub-disciplines with no parent discipline: performance practice and research, and the theory, analysis and composition of music. The disciplinary neighbors of musicology address other forms of art, performance, ritual, and communication, including

2790-547: The re-establishment of formal musicology education in German and Austrian universities had combined methods of systematization with evolution. These models were established not only in the field of physical anthropology , but also cultural anthropology . This was influenced by Hegel 's ideas on ordering "phenomena" which can be understood & distinguished from simple to complex stages of evolution. They are further classified into primitive & developed sections; whereas

2852-534: The rondeaux "Ma fin est mon commencement" and "Rose, liz, printemps, verdure" as well as the virelai " Douce Dame Jolie ". Guillaume de Machaut was born around 1300, one of seven children, and educated in the region around Reims . His surname most likely derives from the nearby town of Machault , 30 km northeast of Reims in the Ardennes region. He was employed as secretary to John I , Count of Luxembourg and King of Bohemia from 1323 to 1346, and also became

2914-871: The same period . To address such a discrepancy, Carapetyan founded the Institute of Renaissance and Baroque Music in 1944, based in Cambridge, Massachusetts . The organization became truly active the following year, and in 1946 it was renamed as the American Institute of Musicology (AIM) with a new headquarters in Rome , Italy. The earlier offices in Cambridge remained, however, and the AIM established offices in Dallas , whose publications transferred to Hänssler-Verlag , Stuttgart by 1974. For its first few years,

2976-417: The scholarly concerns once associated with new musicology already were mainstream in musicology, so that the term "new" no longer applies. Ethnomusicology , formerly comparative musicology, is the study of music in its cultural context. It is often considered the anthropology or ethnography of music. Jeff Todd Titon has called it the study of "people making music". Although it is most often concerned with

3038-413: The structural relationships in the (nearly always notated) music. Composers study music theory to understand how to produce effects and structure their own works. Composers may study music theory to guide their precompositional and compositional decisions. Broadly speaking, music theory in the Western tradition focuses on harmony and counterpoint , and then uses these to explain large scale structure and

3100-519: The study of non-Western music, it also includes the study of Western music from an anthropological or sociological perspective, cultural studies and sociology as well as other disciplines in the social sciences and humanities. Some ethnomusicologists primarily conduct historical studies, but the majority are involved in long-term participant observation or combine ethnographic, musicological, and historical approaches in their fieldwork. Therefore, ethnomusicological scholarship can be characterized as featuring

3162-716: The study of the history of any type or genre of music, such as the music of India or rock music . In practice, these research topics are more often considered within ethnomusicology and "historical musicology" is typically assumed to imply Western Art music of the European tradition. The methods of historical musicology include source studies (especially manuscript studies), palaeography , philology (especially textual criticism ), style criticism, historiography (the choice of historical method ), musical analysis (analysis of music to find "inner coherence") and iconography . The application of musical analysis to further these goals

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3224-648: The techniques composers use by establishing rules and patterns. Others model the experience of listening to or performing music. Though extremely diverse in their interests and commitments, many Western music theorists are united in their belief that the acts of composing, performing and listening to music may be explicated to a high degree of detail (this, as opposed to a conception of musical expression as fundamentally ineffable except in musical sounds). Generally, works of music theory are both descriptive and prescriptive, attempting both to define practice and to influence later practice. Musicians study music theory to understand

3286-523: The tenor, such as in M12 "Corde mesto cantando/Helas! pour quoy virent/Libera me". The top two voices in these three-part compositions, in contrast, sing secular French texts, creating interesting concordances between the sacred and secular. In his other genres, though, he does not utilize sacred texts. Machaut's cyclic setting of the Mass, identified in one source as the Messe de Nostre Dame ( Mass of Our Lady ),

3348-603: The treatises of important theorists such as Guido of Arezzo and Jean Philippe Rameau . The AIM is based in Rome, with offices in Cambridge, Massachusetts . Since 1946, the AIM has published Musica Disciplina , an annual academic journal of early music scholarly work. Musicologists who have been particularly associated with the AIM include John Caldwell , Frank D'Accone , Ursula Gunther , Charles Hamm , Albert Seay and Gilbert Reaney . Armen Carapetyan (1908–1992), an Iranian-Armenian born in Isfahan , graduated from

3410-433: The way that music perception and production manifests in the brain using the methodologies of cognitive neuroscience . While aspects of the field can be highly theoretical, much of modern music psychology seeks to optimize the practices and professions of music performance, composition, education and therapy. Performance practice draws on many of the tools of historical musicology to answer the specific question of how music

3472-574: Was Popular Music which began publication in 1981. The same year an academic society solely devoted to the topic was formed, the International Association for the Study of Popular Music . The association's founding was partly motivated by the interdisciplinary agenda of popular musicology though the group has been characterized by a polarized 'musicological' and 'sociological' approach also typical of popular musicology. Music theory

3534-432: Was a French composer and poet who was the central figure of the ars nova style in late medieval music . His dominance of the genre is such that modern musicologists use his death to separate the ars nova from the subsequent ars subtilior movement. Regarded as the most significant French composer and poet of the 14th century, he is often seen as the century's leading European composer. Machaut, one of

3596-539: Was a reaction against traditional historical musicology, which according to Susan McClary , "fastidiously declares issues of musical signification off-limits to those engaged in legitimate scholarship." Charles Rosen , however, retorts that McClary, "sets up, like so many of the 'new musicologists', a straw man to knock down, the dogma that music has no meaning, and no political or social significance." Today, many musicologists no longer distinguish between musicology and new musicology since it has been recognized that many of

3658-602: Was composed in the early 1360s probably for Rheims Cathedral . While not the first cyclic mass – the Tournai Mass is earlier – it was the first by a single composer and conceived as a unit. Machaut was probably familiar with the Tournai Mass since Machaut's Mass shares many stylistic features with it, including textless interludes. Whether or not Machaut's mass is indeed cyclic is contested; after lengthy debate, musicologists are still deeply divided. However, there

3720-578: Was mainly in elementary and secondary music teaching . Nevertheless, some women musicologists have reached the top ranks of the profession. Carolyn Abbate (born 1956) is an American musicologist who did her PhD at Princeton University . She has been described by the Harvard Gazette as "one of the world's most accomplished and admired music historians". Susan McClary (born 1946) is a musicologist associated with new musicology who incorporates feminist music criticism in her work. McClary holds

3782-571: Was performed in various places at various times in the past. Although previously confined to early music, recent research in performance practice has embraced questions such as how the early history of recording affected the use of vibrato in classical music or instruments in Klezmer . Within the rubric of musicology, performance practice tends to emphasize the collection and synthesis of evidence about how music should be performed. The important other side, learning how to sing authentically or perform

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3844-552: Was the chief editor of the journal until his death in 1992. Reaney and D'Accone then became co-editors, until Reaney's death in 2008 where D'Accone became the sole general editor until his death in 2022. The current editor is Inga Mai Groote of the University of Zürich . For a longer list, see Carapetyan 1996 Musicology Musicology is traditionally divided into three branches: music history , systematic musicology , and ethnomusicology . Historical musicologists study

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