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108-690: The National Institutes of Health , commonly referred to as NIH , is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical and public health research. It was founded in 1887 and is now part of the United States Department of Health and Human Services . Many NIH facilities are located in Bethesda, Maryland , and other nearby suburbs of the Washington metropolitan area , with other primary facilities in

216-410: A metonym for the federal government. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism , in which power is shared between the federal government and state governments . The interpretation and execution of these principles, including what powers the federal government should have and how those powers can be exercised, have been debated ever since the adoption of

324-608: A Bachelor of Science degree and a master's degree from the University of Idaho and his medical degree from Columbia University , graduating in 1947. He became an intern at Presbyterian Hospital in New York City in 1947. In the following year he was promoted from clinical fellow to attending physician at the Memorial Hospital for Cancer and also received a promotion from research fellow to full member at

432-465: A certain percentage (2.8% in 2014) must be granted to small businesses under the SBIR/STTR program. As of 2011, the extramural funding consisted of about 50,000 grants to more than 325,000 researchers at more than 3000 institutions. By 2018, this rate of granting remained reasonably steady, at 47,000 grants to 2,700 organizations. In FY 2010, NIH spent US$ 10.7bn (not including temporary funding from

540-572: A clinical trial, except for the most critically ill, as determined by the NIH Director. Over the last century, the responsibility to allocate funding has shifted from the OD and Advisory Committee to the individual ICs and Congress increasingly set apart funding for particular causes. In the 1970s, Congress began to earmark funds specifically for cancer research, and in the 1980s there was a significant amount allocated for AIDS/HIV research. Funding for

648-707: A complex set of relationships between state and federal courts. Federal courts can sometimes hear cases arising under state law pursuant to diversity jurisdiction , state courts can decide certain matters involving federal law, and a handful of federal claims are primarily reserved by federal statute to the state courts. Both court systems have exclusive jurisdiction in some areas and concurrent jurisdiction in others. The U.S. Constitution safeguards judicial independence by providing that federal judges shall hold office "during good behavior"; in practice, this usually means they serve until they die, retire, or resign. A judge who commits an offense while in office may be impeached in

756-467: A diverse research portfolio in order to capitalize on major discoveries in a variety of fields such as cell biology, genetics, physics, engineering, and computer science. Fourth, address public health needs according to the disease burden (e.g., prevalence and mortality). And fifth, construct and support the scientific infrastructure (e.g., well-equipped laboratories and safe research facilities) necessary to conduct research. Advisory committee members advise

864-613: A few cases. The judicial power extends to cases arising under the Constitution, an Act of Congress ; a U.S. treaty ; cases affecting ambassadors , ministers and consuls of foreign countries in the U.S.; cases and controversies to which the federal government is a party; controversies between states (or their citizens) and foreign nations (or their citizens or subjects); and bankruptcy cases (collectively "federal-question jurisdiction"). The Eleventh Amendment removed from federal jurisdiction cases in which citizens of one state were

972-718: A laboratory for the study of bacteria, the Hygienic Laboratory , was established within the Marine Hospital Service , which at the time was expanding its functions beyond the system of Marine Hospitals into quarantine and research programs. It was initially located at the New York Marine Hospital on Staten Island . In 1891, it moved to the top floor of the Butler Building in Washington, D.C. In 1904, it moved again to

1080-788: A new campus at the Old Naval Observatory , which grew to include five major buildings. In 1901, the Division of Scientific Research was formed, which included the Hygienic Laboratory as well as other research offices of the Marine Hospital Service. In 1912, the Marine Hospital Service became the Public Health Service (PHS). In 1922, PHS established a Special Cancer Investigations laboratory at Harvard Medical School . This marked

1188-599: A rate similar to inflation since the 1970s, research funding for the NIH nearly tripled through the 1990s and early 2000s, but has remained relatively stagnant since then. By the 1990s, the NIH committee focus had shifted to DNA research and launched the Human Genome Project . The NIH Office of the Director is the central office responsible for setting policy for NIH, and for planning, managing, and coordinating

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1296-399: A series of audit reports revealing that throughout the fiscal years 2000–2010, institutes under the aegis of the NIH did not comply with the time and amount requirements specified in appropriations statutes, in awarding federal contracts to commercial partners, committing the federal government to tens of millions of dollars of expenditure ahead of appropriation of funds from Congress. The NIH

1404-478: A single elected term." Under the Presentment Clause of Article I, a bill that passes both chambers of Congress shall be presented to the president, who may sign the bill into law or veto the bill by returning it to the chamber where it originated. If the president neither signs nor vetoes a bill "within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him" it becomes a law without

1512-619: A special election can take place. The House and Senate each have particular exclusive powers. For example, the Senate must approve (give " advice and consent " to) many important presidential appointments, including cabinet officers, federal judges (including nominees to the Supreme Court), department secretaries (heads of federal executive branch departments), U.S. military and naval officers, and ambassadors to foreign countries. All legislative bills for raising revenue must originate in

1620-515: A trade embargo, declare war upon a foreign government that the President had recognized, or decline to appropriate funds for an embassy in that country." The president may also negotiate and sign treaties, but ratifying treaties requires the consent of two-thirds of the Senate. Article II's Appointments Clause provides that the president "shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of

1728-611: Is available to the general public whereas the individual-level data is accessible to researchers. According to the City Journal NIH denies access to such attributes as intelligence, education and health on the grounds that studying their genetic basis would be stigmatizing. The NIH partnered with Moderna in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic to develop a vaccine. The final phase of testing began on July 27 with up to 30,000 volunteers assigned to one of two groups—one receiving

1836-611: Is composed of 27 separate institutes and centers that conduct and coordinate biomedical research. These are: In addition, the National Center for Research Resources operated from April 13, 1962, to December 23, 2011. The Advanced Research Projects Agency for Health (ARPA-H) is an entity formerly within the Office of the United States Secretary of Health and Human Services , which was created by Congress in

1944-441: Is determined by the scientist. The total number of applicants has increased substantially, from about 60,000 investigators who had applied during the period from 1999 to 2003 to slightly less than 90,000 in who had applied during the period from 2011 to 2015. Due to this, the "cumulative investigator rate", that is, the likelihood that unique investigators are funded over a 5-year window, has declined from 43% to 31%. R01 grants are

2052-645: Is established in Article Two of the United States Constitution , which vests executive power in the president of the United States . The president is both the head of state (performing ceremonial functions) and the head of government (the chief executive). The Constitution directs the president to " take care that the laws be faithfully executed " and requires the president to swear or affirm to "preserve, protect and defend

2160-402: Is intended to prevent waste and fraud, protect civil liberties and individual rights, ensure executive compliance with the law, gather information for making laws and educating the public, and evaluate executive performance. It applies to cabinet departments, executive agencies, regulatory commissions, and the presidency. Congress's oversight function takes many forms: The executive branch

2268-604: Is one delegate each from Washington, D.C. , Guam , the Virgin Islands , American Samoa , the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands , and a resident commissioner from Puerto Rico . Unlike the U.S. Senate , all members of the U.S. House must be elected and cannot be appointed. In the case of a vacancy, the seat must be filled through a special election, as required under Article 1 of

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2376-487: Is requesting $ 2.5 billion for 2024. Source: United States government [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The federal government of the United States ( U.S. federal government or U.S. government ) is the common government of the United States , a federal republic located primarily in North America , comprising 50 states , five major self-governing territories , several island possessions , and

2484-588: Is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces . Under the Reception Clause , the president is empowered to "receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers"; the president has broad authority to conduct foreign relations, is generally considered to have the sole power of diplomatic recognition , and is the United States' chief diplomat, although the Congress also has an important role in legislating on foreign affairs, and can, for example, "institute

2592-596: The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 ) on clinical research , US$ 7.4bn on genetics -related research, US$ 6.0bn on prevention research, US$ 5.8bn on cancer, and US$ 5.7bn on biotechnology . In 2008 a Congressional mandate called for investigators funded by the NIH to submit an electronic version of their final manuscripts to the National Library of Medicine 's research repository, PubMed Central (PMC), no later than 12 months after

2700-504: The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2022 . Modeled after DARPA , HSARPA , IARPA , and ARPA-E , it is intended to pursue unconventional research projects through methods not typically used by federal agencies or private sector companies. Secretary Xavier Becerra delegated ARPA-H to the NIH on May 24, 2022. It received $ 1 billion in appropriations in 2022, and $ 1.5 billion in 2023, and as of June 2023 it

2808-474: The Constitution , and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which the nation is a party. The terms "Government of the United States of America" or "United States Government" are often used in official documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term "Federal Government" is often used, and

2916-758: The Research Triangle Park in North Carolina and smaller satellite facilities located around the United States. The NIH conducts its own scientific research through the NIH Intramural Research Program (IRP) and provides major biomedical research funding to non-NIH research facilities through its Extramural Research Program. As of 2013, the IRP had 1,200 principal investigators and more than 4,000 postdoctoral fellows in basic, translational, and clinical research, being

3024-532: The U.S. Tax Court , are specialized courts handling only certain kinds of cases, known as subject matter jurisdiction . The Bankruptcy Courts are supervised by the district courts, and, as such, are not considered part of the Article III judiciary. As such, their judges do not have lifetime tenure, nor are they Constitutionally exempt from diminution of their remuneration. The Tax Court is an Article I Court, not an Article III Court. The district courts are

3132-505: The United States District Courts , which are the general trial courts for federal law, and for certain controversies between litigants who are not deemed citizens of the same state, known as diversity jurisdiction . There are three levels of federal courts with general jurisdiction, which are courts that handle both criminal and civil suits between individuals. Other courts, such as the bankruptcy courts and

3240-914: The United States Postal Service (USPS), NASA , the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). In addition, there are government-owned corporations , including the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and the National Railroad Passenger Corporation . The Judiciary, under Article III of

3348-713: The White House staff, the National Security Council , the Office of Management and Budget , the Council of Economic Advisers , the Council on Environmental Quality , the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative , the Office of National Drug Control Policy , and the Office of Science and Technology Policy . Outside of the EOP and the executive departments are a number of independent agencies . These include

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3456-686: The Wuhan Institute of Virology (WIV)—which has been at the center of speculation since early 2020 that SARS-CoV-2 may have escaped in a lab incident. Under political pressure, the NIH withdrew funding to EcoHealth Alliance in July 2020. On February 13, 2012, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) announced a new group of individuals assigned to research pain. This committee is composed of researchers from different organizations and will focus to "coordinate pain research activities across

3564-508: The federal district (national capital) of Washington, D.C. , where the majority of the federal government is based. The U.S. federal government is composed of three distinct branches: legislative , executive , and judicial , whose powers are vested by the U.S. Constitution in the Congress , the president , and the federal courts , respectively. The powers and duties of these branches are further defined by acts of Congress, including

3672-565: The mRNA-1273 vaccine and the other receiving salt water injections—and continued until there had been approximately 100 cases of COVID-19 among the participants. In 2021, the NIH contributed $ 4,395,399 towards the Accelerating COVID-19 Therapeutic Interventions and Vaccines (ACTIV) program. Following the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic , NIH-funded EcoHealth Alliance has been the subject of controversy and increased scrutiny due to its ties to

3780-593: The militia , exercise exclusive legislation in the District of Columbia , regulate interstate commerce , and to make laws necessary to properly execute powers. Over the two centuries since the United States was formed, many disputes have arisen over the limits on the powers of the federal government. These disputes have often been the subject of lawsuits that have ultimately been decided by the United States Supreme Court . Congressional oversight

3888-573: The 21 drugs with the highest therapeutic impact on society introduced between 1965 and 1992, public funding was "instrumental" for 15. As of 2011 NIH-supported research helped to discover 153 new FDA-approved drugs, vaccines, and new indications for drugs in the 40 years prior. One study found NIH funding aided either directly or indirectly in developing the drugs or drug targets for all of the 210 FDA-approved drugs from 2010 to 2016. In 2015, Pierre Azoulay et al. estimated $ 10 million invested in research generated two to three new patents. Since its inception,

3996-484: The 50 states is determined by state populations, and it is updated after each decennial U.S. Census. Each member serves a two-year term. In order to be elected as a representative, an individual must be at least 25 years of age, must have been a U.S. citizen for at least seven years, and must live in the state that they represent. In addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner . There

4104-833: The Cabinet who are appointed by the president. These are the White House Chief of Staff, Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, Director of the Office of Management & Budget, United States Trade Representative, U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers, and Administrator of the Small Business Administration. The heads of the 15 departments are chosen by

4212-824: The Center for Cancer Research, Office of Scientific Operations, Management Operations Support Branch, the division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics and the division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis. The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences is located in the Research Triangle region of North Carolina . Other ICs have satellite locations in addition to operations at the main campus. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases maintains its Rocky Mountain Labs in Hamilton, Montana , with an emphasis on BSL3 and BSL4 laboratory work. NIDDK operates

4320-492: The Chief Division Virology/Immunology. He joined the faculty of Cornell's medical college in 1951 and was eventually promoted to full professor. From the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s, Southam conducted clinical research on people without their informed consent , in which he injected cancer cells ( HeLa cells) into their skin, to see if their immune system would reject the cancer cells or if

4428-470: The Civil War) or when states' rights proponents have succeeded in limiting federal power through legislative action, executive prerogative or by a constitutional interpretation by the courts. One of the theoretical pillars of the U.S. Constitution is the idea of " checks and balances " among the powers and responsibilities of the three branches of American government: the executive, the legislative, and

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4536-510: The Congress. The United States Congress , under Article I of the Constitution, is the legislative branch of the federal government. It is bicameral , comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate . The U.S. House of Representatives is made up of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district in a state from where they were elected. Apportionment of seats among

4644-714: The Constitution of the United States." Legal scholars William P. Marshall and Saikrishna B. Prakash write of the Clause: "the President may neither breach federal law nor order their subordinates to do so, for defiance cannot be considered faithful execution. The Constitution also incorporates the English bars on dispensing or suspending the law, with some supposing that the Clause itself prohibits both." Many presidential actions are undertaken via executive orders , presidential proclamations , and presidential memoranda . The president

4752-705: The Constitution, explains and applies the laws. This branch does this by hearing and eventually making decisions on various legal cases. Article III section I of the Constitution establishes the Supreme Court of the United States and authorizes the United States Congress to establish inferior courts as their need shall arise. Section I also establishes a lifetime tenure for all federal judges and states that their compensation may not be diminished during their time in office. Article II section II establishes that all federal judges are to be appointed by

4860-497: The Constitution. Some make a case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states, or other recognized entities. Since the American Civil War , the powers of the federal government have generally expanded greatly, although there have been periods since that time of legislative branch dominance (e.g., the decades immediately following

4968-615: The Constitution; all other powers are reserved to the states and the people. The Constitution also includes the Necessary and Proper Clause , which grants Congress the power to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers". Members of the House and Senate are elected by first-past-the-post voting in every state except Louisiana and Georgia , which have runoffs , and Maine and Alaska , which use ranked-choice voting . Congress has

5076-663: The Director. NIH submits its budget request to the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), and the HHS considers this request as a portion of its budget. Many adjustments and appeals occur between NIH and HHS before the agency submits NIH's budget request to the Office of Management and Budget (OMB). OMB determines what amounts and research areas are approved for incorporation into the President's final budget. The President then sends NIH's budget request to Congress in February for

5184-582: The House and 19 in the Senate, plus 4 joint permanent committees with members from both houses overseeing the Library of Congress , printing, taxation, and the economy. In addition, each house may name special, or select, committees to study specific problems. Today, much of the congressional workload is borne by the subcommittees, of which there are around 150. The Constitution grants numerous powers to Congress. Enumerated in Article I, Section 8, these include

5292-425: The House of Representatives. The approval of both chambers is required to pass all legislation, which then may only become law by being signed by the president (or, if the president vetoes the bill, both houses of Congress then re-pass the bill, but by a two-thirds majority of each chamber, in which case the bill becomes law without the president's signature). The powers of Congress are limited to those enumerated in

5400-469: The House plus its two senators). The District of Columbia has a number of electoral votes "equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which the District would be entitled if it were a State, but in no event more than the least populous State". A President may also be seated by succession . As originally drafted, there was no limit to the time a President could serve, however

5508-508: The Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital. When three doctors resigned after refusing to inject patients without their consent, the experiment gained considerable media attention. The NIH was a major source of funding for Southam's research and had required all research involving human subjects to obtain their consent prior to any experimentation. Upon investigating all of their grantee institutions, the NIH discovered that

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5616-559: The NIH Toolbox was rolled out to the research community. NIH Toolbox assessments are based, where possible, on Item Response Theory and adapted for testing by computer. NIH sponsors the Database of Genotypes and Phenotypes (dbGaP), a repository of information produced by studies investigating the interaction of genotype and phenotype. The information includes phenotypes, molecular assay data, analyses and documents. Summary-level data

5724-457: The NIH budget doubled. For a time, funding essentially remained flat, and for seven years following the financial crisis, the NIH budget struggled to keep up with inflation. In 1999 Congress increased the NIH's budget by $ 2.3 billion to $ 17.2 billion in 2000. In 2009 Congress again increased the NIH budget to $ 31 billion in 2010. In 2017 and 2018, Congress passed laws with bipartisan support that substantially increasing appropriations for NIH, which

5832-437: The NIH but may apply for funding. Throughout the history of the NIH, the amount of funding received has increased, but the proportion to each IC remains relatively constant. The individual ICs then decide who will receive the grant money and how much will be allotted. Policy changes on who receives funding significantly affect researchers. For example, the NIH has recently attempted to approve more first-time NIH R01 applicants or

5940-404: The NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress, serving as a proxy for the political currents of the time. During the 1980s, President Reagan repeatedly tried to cut funding for research, only to see Congress partly restore funding. The political contention over NIH funding slowed the nation's response to the AIDS epidemic; while AIDS was reported in newspaper articles from 1981, no funding

6048-428: The NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress, serving as a proxy for the political currents of the time. In 1992, the NIH encompassed nearly 1 percent of the federal government's operating budget and controlled more than 50 percent of all funding for health research, and 85 percent of all funding for health studies in universities. While government funding for research in other disciplines has been increasing at

6156-489: The NIH intramural research program has been a source of many pivotal scientific and medical discoveries. Some of these include: In September 2006, the NIH Blueprint for Neuroscience Research started a contract for the NIH Toolbox for the Assessment of Neurological and Behavioral Function to develop a set of state-of-the-art measurement tools to enhance collection of data in large cohort studies. Scientists from more than 100 institutions nationwide contributed. In September 2012,

6264-450: The NIH would take the balance of each study design into consideration when awarding grants. The announcement also stated that this rule would probably not apply when studying sex-specific diseases (for example, ovarian or testicular cancer). One of the goals of the NIH is to "expand the base in medical and associated sciences in order to ensure a continued high return on the public investment in research." Taxpayer dollars funding NIH are from

6372-422: The National Institute for General Medical Science awarded funding to 30% of applicants. NIH employs five broad decision criteria in its funding policy. First, ensure the highest quality of scientific research by employing an arduous peer review process. Second, seize opportunities that have the greatest potential to yield new knowledge and that will lead to better prevention and treatment of disease. Third, maintain

6480-437: The Phoenix Epidemiology and Clinical Research Branch in Phoenix, Arizona . As of 2017, 153 scientists receiving financial support from the NIH have been awarded a Nobel Prize and 195 have been awarded a Lasker Award . NIH devotes 10% of its funding to research within its own facilities (intramural research), and gives >80% of its funding in research grants to extramural (outside) researchers. Of this extramural funding,

6588-403: The Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States " while providing that "Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments." These appointments delegate "by legal authority a portion of

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6696-417: The Twenty-second Amendment, ratified in 1951, originally limits any president to serving two four-year terms (8 years); the amendment specifically "caps the service of a president at 10 years" by providing that "if a person succeeds to the office of president without election and serves less than two years, he may run for two full terms; otherwise, a person succeeding to office of president can serve no more than

6804-404: The U.S. Constitution. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population. There are currently 100 senators (2 from each of the 50 states), who each serve six-year terms. Approximately one-third of the Senate stands for election every two years. If a vacancy occurs, the state governor appoints a replacement to complete the term or to hold the office until

6912-429: The beginning of a partnership with universities. In 1930, the Hygienic Laboratory was re-designated as the National Institute of Health by the Ransdell Act , and was given $ 750,000 to construct two NIH buildings at the Old Naval Observatory campus. In 1937, NIH absorbed the rest of the Division of Scientific Research, of which it was formerly part. In 1938, NIH moved to its current campus in Bethesda, Maryland . Over

7020-402: The case from state court to federal court. The United States Courts of Appeals are appellate courts that hear appeals of cases decided by the district courts, and some direct appeals from administrative agencies, and some interlocutory appeals. The U.S. Supreme Court hears appeals from the decisions of the courts of appeals or state supreme courts, and in addition has original jurisdiction over

7128-408: The cells would grow. He did this to patients under his care or others' care, and to prisoners. In 1963, doctors Avir Kagan, David Leichter and Perry Fersko of Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital objected to the lack of consent in his experiments and reported him to the Regents of the University of the State of New York which found him guilty of fraud, deceit, and unprofessional conduct, and in the end he

7236-404: The chambers to consider urgent matters. The vice president is the second-highest official in rank of the federal government. The vice president's duties and powers are established in the legislative branch of the federal government under Article 1, Section 3, Clauses 4 and 5 as the president of the Senate ; this means that they are the designated presiding officer of the Senate. In that capacity,

7344-440: The creation of executive departments and courts subordinate to the U.S. Supreme Court . In the federal division of power, the federal government shares sovereignty with each of the 50 states in their respective territories. U.S. law recognizes Indigenous tribes as possessing sovereign powers , while being subject to federal jurisdiction. The full name of the republic is the "United States of America". No other name appears in

7452-418: The executive branch when becoming president upon the death, resignation, or removal of the president, which has happened nine times in U.S. history. Lastly, in the case of a Twenty-fifth Amendment succession event, the vice president would become acting president, assuming all of the powers and duties of president, except being designated as president. Accordingly, by circumstances, the Constitution designates

7560-521: The federal government with the goals of stimulating pain research collaboration… and providing an important avenue for public involvement" ("Members of new", 2012). With a committee such as this research will not be conducted by each individual organization or person but instead a collaborating group which will increase the information available. With this hopefully more pain management will be available including techniques for those with arthritis. In 2020 Beth Darnall , American scientist and pain psychologist,

7668-431: The institute on policy and procedures affecting the external research programs and provide a second level of review for all grant and cooperative agreement applications considered by the Institute for funding. In 2014, it was announced that the NIH is directing scientists to perform their experiments with both female and male animals, or cells derived from females as well as males if they are studying cell cultures, and that

7776-483: The judiciary. For example, while the legislative branch ( Congress ) has the power to create law, the executive branch under the president can veto any legislation—an act which, in turn, can be overridden by Congress. The president nominates judges to the nation's highest judiciary authority, the Supreme Court (as well as to lower federal courts), but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in turn, can invalidate unconstitutional laws passed by

7884-404: The largest biomedical research institution in the world, while, as of 2003, the extramural arm provided 28% of biomedical research funding spent annually in the U.S., or about US$ 26.4 billion. The NIH comprises 27 separate institutes and centers of different biomedical disciplines and is responsible for many scientific accomplishments, including the discovery of fluoride to prevent tooth decay ,

7992-486: The law and creating precedent for future law and decisions. The United States Constitution does not specifically mention the power of judicial review , which is the power to declare a law unconstitutional. There have been instances in the past where such declarations have been ignored by the other two branches. Below the U.S. Supreme Court are the United States Courts of Appeals , and below them in turn are

8100-590: The majority of them did not protect the rights of human subjects. From then on, the NIH has required all grantee institutions to approve any research proposals involving human experimentation with review boards. In 1967, the Division of Regional Medical Programs was created to administer grants for research for heart disease, cancer, and strokes . That same year, the NIH director lobbied the White House for increased federal funding in order to increase research and

8208-528: The most common funding mechanism and include investigator-initiated projects. The roughly 27,000 to 29,000 R01 applications had a funding success of 17-19% during 2012 though 2014. Similarly, the 13,000 to 14,000 R21 applications had a funding success of 13-14% during the same period. In FY 2016, the total number of grant applications received by the NIH was 54,220, with approximately 19% being awarded funding. Institutes have varying funding rates. The National Cancer Institute awarded funding to 12% of applicants, while

8316-652: The next few decades, Congress would markedly increase funding of the NIH, and various institutes and centers within the NIH were created for specific research programs. In 1944, the Public Health Service Act was approved, and the National Cancer Institute became a division of NIH. In 1948, the name changed from National Institute of Health to National Institutes of Health. In the 1960s, virologist and cancer researcher Chester M. Southam injected HeLa cancer cells into patients at

8424-464: The next fiscal year's allocations. The House and Senate Appropriations Subcommittees deliberate and by fall, Congress usually appropriates funding. This process takes approximately 18 months before the NIH can allocate any actual funds. When a government shutdown occurs, the NIH continues to treat people who are already enrolled in clinical trials , but does not start any new clinical trials and does not admit new patients who are not already enrolled in

8532-702: The office of vice president. Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution sets forth the creation of a presidential Cabinet. The role of the Cabinet is to advise the president and carry out the programs and laws of the federal government. The Cabinet is composed of the vice president and the leaders of 15 executive departments. Those executive departments are the Departments of State, Treasury, Defense, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, Education, Veterans Affairs, and Homeland Security. Additionally, there are seven other members of

8640-537: The official date of publication. The NIH Public Access Policy was the first public access mandate for a U.S. public funding agency. In 2000, the Joint Economic Committee of Congress reported NIH research, which was funded at $ 16 billion a year in 2000, that some econometric studies had given a rate of return of 25 to 40 percent per year by reducing the economic cost of illness in the US. It found that of

8748-488: The plaintiffs and the government of another state was the defendant. It did not disturb federal jurisdiction in cases in which a state government is a plaintiff and a citizen of another state the defendant. The power of the federal courts extends both to civil actions for damages and other redress, and to criminal cases arising under federal law. The interplay of the Supremacy Clause and Article III has resulted in

8856-497: The power to adjourn Congress whenever the House and Senate cannot agree when to adjourn; no president has ever used this power. The president also has the constitutional power to, "on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them"; this power has been used "to consider nominations, war, and emergency legislation." This Section invests the President with the discretion to convene Congress on "extraordinary occasions"; this special session power that has been used to call

8964-478: The power to re-organize or even abolish federal courts lower than the Supreme Court. The U.S. Supreme Court decides cases and controversies , which include matters pertaining to the federal government, disputes between states, and interpretation of the United States Constitution, and, in general, can declare legislation or executive action made at any level of the government as unconstitutional , nullifying

9072-437: The power to remove the president, federal judges, and other federal officers from office. The House of Representatives and Senate have separate roles in this process. The House must first vote to impeach the official. Then, a trial is held in the Senate to decide whether the official should be removed from office. As of 2023 , three presidents have been impeached: Andrew Johnson , Bill Clinton , and Donald Trump (twice). None of

9180-420: The powers to levy and collect taxes ; to coin money and regulate its value; provide for punishment for counterfeiting; establish post offices and roads, issue patents, create federal courts inferior to the Supreme Court , combat piracies and felonies , declare war , raise and support armies , provide and maintain a navy , make rules for the regulation of land and naval forces, provide for, arm and discipline

9288-502: The president and approved with the "advice and consent" of the U.S. Senate. Once confirmed, these "Cabinet secretaries" serve at the pleasure of the president. In addition to the executive departments, a number of staff organizations are grouped into the Executive Office of the President (EOP), which was created in 1939 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The EOP is overseen by the White House Chief of Staff. The EOP includes

9396-485: The president and confirmed by the United States Senate. The Judiciary Act of 1789 subdivided the nation jurisdictionally into judicial districts and created federal courts for each district. The three tiered structure of this act established the basic structure of the national judiciary: the Supreme Court, 13 courts of appeals, 94 district courts, and two courts of special jurisdiction. Congress retains

9504-474: The president has major agenda-setting powers to influence lawmaking and policymaking, and typically has a major role as the leader of their political party . The president and vice president are normally elected as running mates by the Electoral College ; each state has a number of electoral votes equal to the size of its Congressional delegation ( i.e. , its number of Representatives in

9612-525: The president's signature, "unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return in which Case it shall not be a Law" (called a pocket veto ). A presidential veto may be overridden by a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress; this occurs relatively infrequently. The president may be impeached by a majority in the House and removed from office by a two-thirds majority in the Senate for " treason , bribery , or other high crimes and misdemeanors ". The president may not dissolve Congress , but has

9720-598: The programs and activities of all NIH components. The NIH Director plays an active role in shaping the agency's activities and outlook. The Director is responsible for providing leadership to the Institutes and Centers by identifying needs and opportunities, especially in efforts involving multiple Institutes. Within the Director's Office is the Division of Program Coordination, Planning and Strategic Initiatives with 12 divisions including: The Agency Intramural Research Integrity Officer "is directly responsible for overseeing

9828-466: The research grant applications of young scientists. To encourage the participation of young scientists, the application process has been shortened and made easier. In addition, first-time applicants are being offered more funding for their research grants than those who have received grants in the past. In 2011 and 2012, the Department of Health and Human Services Office of Inspector General published

9936-513: The resolution of all research misconduct allegations involving intramural research , and for promoting research integrity within the NIH Office of Intramural Research (OIR)." There is a Division of Extramural Activities, which has its own Director. The Office of Ethics has its own Director, as does the Office of Global Research. Intramural research is primarily conducted at the main campus in Bethesda, Maryland , and Rockville, Maryland , and

10044-447: The same way as the president or other officials of the federal government. U.S. judges are appointed by the president, subject to confirmation by the Senate. Another Constitutional provision prohibits Congress from reducing the pay of any present Article III judge. However, Congress is able to set a lower salary for all future judges who take office after such a pay reduction is passed by Congress. Chester M. Southam Southam earned

10152-594: The sovereign powers of the federal government." The Constitution grants the president the "Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States , except in Cases of Impeachment"; this clemency power includes the power to issue absolute or conditional pardons, and to issue commute sentences , to remit fines, and to issue general amnesties . The presidential clemency power extends only to federal crimes, and not to state crimes. The president has informal powers beyond their formal powers. For example,

10260-508: The speed with which health benefits could be brought to the people. An advisory committee was formed to oversee the further development of the NIH and its research programs. By 1971 cancer research was in full force and President Nixon signed the National Cancer Act , initiating a National Cancer Program, President's Cancer Panel, National Cancer Advisory Board, and 15 new research, training, and demonstration centers. Funding for

10368-616: The surrounding communities. The Bayview Campus in Baltimore , Maryland houses the research programs of the National Institute on Aging , National Institute on Drug Abuse , and National Human Genome Research Institute with nearly 1,000 scientists and support staff. The Frederick National Laboratory in Frederick, MD and the nearby Riverside Research Park, houses many components of the National Cancer Institute , including

10476-530: The taxpayers, making them the primary beneficiaries of advances in research. Thus, the general public is a key stakeholder in the decisions resulting from the NIH funding policy. However, some in the general public do not feel their interests are being represented, and individuals have formed patient advocacy groups to represent their own interests. Important stakeholders of the NIH funding policy include researchers and scientists. Extramural researchers differ from intramural researchers in that they are not employed by

10584-467: The term "U.S. Government" is sometimes used. The terms "Federal" and "National" in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government; for instance, the Federal Bureau of Investigation , National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , and National Park Service . Because the seat of government is in Washington, D.C. , "Washington" is sometimes used as

10692-434: The three were removed from office following trial in the Senate. Article I, Section 2, paragraph 2 of the U.S. Constitution gives each chamber the power to "determine the rules of its proceedings". From this provision were created congressional committees , which do the work of drafting legislation and conducting congressional investigations into national matters. The 118th Congress (2023–2025) has 20 standing committees in

10800-529: The trial courts wherein cases that are considered under the Judicial Code (Title 28, United States Code) consistent with the jurisdictional precepts of federal question jurisdiction , diversity jurisdiction, and pendent jurisdiction can be filed and decided. The district courts can also hear cases under removal jurisdiction , wherein a case brought in a state court meets the requirements for diversity jurisdiction, and one party litigant chooses to "remove"

10908-485: The use of lithium to manage bipolar disorder , and the creation of vaccines against hepatitis , Haemophilus influenzae (HIB), and human papillomavirus (HPV). In 2019, the NIH was ranked number two in the world, behind Harvard University , for biomedical sciences in the Nature Index , which measured the largest contributors to papers published in a subset of leading journals from 2015 to 2018. In 1887,

11016-518: The vice president as routinely in the legislative branch, or succeeding to the executive branch as president, or possibly being in both as acting president pursuant to the Twenty-fifth Amendment . Because of circumstances, the overlapping nature of the duties and powers attributed to the office, the title of the office and other matters, such has generated a spirited scholarly dispute regarding attaching an exclusive branch designation to

11124-522: The vice president has the authority ( ex officio , for they are not an elected member of the Senate) to cast a tie-breaking vote . Pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment , the vice president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College . As first in the U.S. presidential line of succession , the vice president's duties and powers move to

11232-668: Was 37.3 billion dollars annually in FY2018. Researchers at universities or other institutions outside of NIH can apply for research project grants (RPGs) from the NIH. There are numerous funding mechanisms for different project types (e.g., basic research, clinical research, etc.) and career stages (e.g., early career, postdoc fellowships, etc.). The NIH regularly issues "requests for applications" (RFAs), e.g., on specific programmatic priorities or timely medical problems (such as Zika virus research in early 2016). In addition, researchers can apply for "investigator-initiated grants" whose subject

11340-560: Was also reported in The New York Times , but some people he injected got severe cases of West Nile fever ; he went on to do further research to see if he could "train" the virus to kill cancer without the common side effects of chemotherapy. Southam was later elected president of the American Association for Cancer Research . In 1971, Southam left his positions at Memorial Sloan Kettering and Cornell to become

11448-455: Was appointed as scientific member of the group. To allocate funds, the NIH must first obtain its budget from Congress. This process begins with institute and center (IC) leaders collaborating with scientists to determine the most important and promising research areas within their fields. IC leaders discuss research areas with NIH management who then develops a budget request for continuing projects, new research proposals, and new initiatives from

11556-676: Was placed on probation for a year. Southam's research was conducted in an era when cancer research was closely followed in the mainstream media; his experiments and the case at the Regents were reported in The New York Times and declared highly unethical. In the 1950s, Southam also tested the West Nile Virus as a potential virotherapy ; he injected it into over 100 cancer patients who had terminal cancer and few treatment options. This work had some good results and

11664-517: Was provided for research on the disease. In 1984 National Cancer Institute scientists found implications that "variants of a human cancer virus called HTLV-III are the primary cause of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)," a new epidemic that gripped the nation. In 1992, the NIH encompassed nearly 1 percent of the federal government's operating budget and controlled more than 50 percent of all funding for health research and 85 percent of all funding for health studies in universities. From 1993 to 2001

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