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35-562: The Noctuidae , commonly known as owlet moths , cutworms or armyworms, are a family of moths . Taxonomically, they are considered the most controversial family in the superfamily Noctuoidea because many of the clades are constantly changing, along with the other families of the Noctuoidea. It was considered the largest family in Lepidoptera for a long time, but after regrouping Lymantriinae , Catocalinae and Calpinae within

70-468: A few days start to get darker. Eggs : Vary in colors, but all have a spherical shape. The word Noctuidae is derived from the name of the type genus Noctua , which is the Latin name for the little owl , and the patronymic suffix -idae used typically to form taxonomic family names in animals. The common name " owlet " originally means a small or young owl. The names "armyworms" and "cutworms" are based on

105-610: A larger role in systematics , the structure of many Lepidoptera groups has been changing and Noctuidae is not an exception. Most recent studies have shown that Noctuidae sensu stricto is a monophyletic group, mainly based on trifine venation. Some clades within Noctuidae sensu lato have yet to be studied. This taxonomic division represents the subfamilies, tribes and subtribes considered so far. Genera with intervening taxonomy not available include: Cutworm Cutworm larvae vary in their feeding behaviour; some remain with

140-414: A light is flashed on them. Others will climb trees such as species of acacia nightly, leaving trails of silk, but they leave individual trails, not common trails like processionary caterpillars. The fruit-piercing moth Serrodes partita similarly lives under litter beneath its food plant, the tree Pappea capensis . The term cutworm applies mainly to larvae of various species in several genera within

175-433: A prominent white fringe. Seitz states - Distinguished from rivularis F. by the absence of the violet sheen; the markings white instead of yellow; the upper stigmata not conjoined; a conspicuous black blotch above inner margin near base; hindwing fuscous. Larva dull brown, with darker dorsal line and oblique subdorsal streaks. One or two broods are produced each year and adults can be seen between May and September. Flight

210-440: A seedling at ground level by chewing through the stem. Some species are subterranean and eat roots. One of the most common garden pests is the variegated cutworm ( Peridroma saucia ), which can defoliate entire gardens and fields in a matter of days. Cutworms are usually green, brown, grey, or yellow soft-bodied caterpillars, often with longitudinal stripes, up to 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) in length. There are many variations among

245-484: A specialised nursery pollination system with Silene latifolia . Nursery pollination systems are those where female pollinators lay their eggs on flowers, and as offspring develop, they consume either the plant or the developing ovules or seeds. In this type of pollination system the host plant and pollinator, in this case the moth, are dependent on each other. This relationship can also be considered parasitic as offspring consume seeds, which impacts seed dispersal. It

280-419: A stronger connection with their host plants. For example, the lychnis moth ( Hadena bicruris ) has a strange mutualistic relationship with pink plants or carnation plants ( Caryophyllaceae ), in that larvae feed on the plant while the adults pollinate the flowers. Herbivory : Caterpillars of most Noctuidae feed on plants; some feed on poisonous plants and are unaffected by their chemical defences; for example,

315-439: A structure in the metathorax called the nodular sclerite or epaulette, which separates the tympanum and the conjunctiva in the tympanal organ . It functions to keep parasites ( Acari ) out of the tympanal cavity. Another characteristic in this group is trifine hindwing venation, by reduction or absence of the second medial vein (M2). Markings present on the wings of noctuid adults can be helpful in distinguishing species. From

350-573: Is aposematism , represented by species of Cucullinae . Finally, all adults have another mechanism for defense: a tympanal organ available to hear the echolocation spread out by bats, so the moths can avoid them. Many species of owlet moths are considered an agricultural problem around the world. Their larvae are typically known as "cutworms" or "armyworms" due to enormous swarms that destroy crops, orchards and gardens every year. The Old World bollworm ( Helicoverpa armigera ) produces losses in agriculture every year that exceed US$ 2 billion. Additionally,

385-469: Is a moth of the family Noctuidae . It is found in northern and western Europe and Turkey . It has an Atlantic-Mediterranean distribution. In the East Palearctic it is replaced by Hadena capsincola . This species has dark brown forewings marked with two prominent white-bordered stigmata and a white subterminal line. The hindwings are buffish, darkening to brown towards the margin but with

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420-437: Is a cost to plants by seed predation, this will potentially occur following visitation by a female. Compared to when a male visits the plant, he will only consume the nectar and not have any impact to any part of the plants structure. H. bicruris visit both male and female S. latifolia flowers, and show no preference for flower sex. The efficiency of a pollinator is determined by the number of fruit that are produced following

455-446: Is a powerful means of control, for example in grain fields. The same principle permits some domestic gardeners to kill the caterpillars without the problems associated with the use of pesticides; the first line of control can be to till the soil some weeks before planting to destroy any dormant larvae. Also, at any time during the season, if the population has been reasonably well controlled, but there are signs of localised cutworm attack,

490-399: Is common in members of the order Lepidoptera, courtship in many Noctuidae includes a set of movements in which the female evaluates the male's reproductive fitness. Most noctuid moths produce pheromones that attract the opposite sex. Female pheromones that attract males occur widely and have long been studied, but the study of male pheromones has further to go. Noctuid moths commonly begin

525-428: Is from June to July. The larva feeds on various Caryophyllaceae such as Dianthus , Lychnis , Saponaria and Silene . The species overwinters as a pupa . H. bicruis is a nocturnal pollinator meaning that it frequents flowers late in the day or at night. Flowers pollinated by moths are often pale in colour, allowing for moonlight to be reflected for easy detection by pollinators. H. bicruris has

560-413: Is important to note that this system is not as strong as other nursery pollination systems, and that co-pollinators can alter the interaction between H. bicruris and S. latifolia. H. bicruris lack the specialised pollination structures that many other pollinators have. Instead, pollen granules catch on their bodies and legs when they come into contact with a flower to feed on nectar. This

595-504: Is otherwise known as passive pollination, where organisms have no specialised collecting or depositing behaviour or structures, but still contribute to pollination. When the moth then visits the next flower, pollen granules may be transferred from the body to the stigma of the receiving plant. Despite the lack of specialised pollination structures, H. bicruris are considered to be the most efficient pollinator of S. latifolia , where both sexes contribute equally to pollination. Although there

630-618: The Noctuidae , a large family of moths; however many noctuid species are not cutworms, and some moths whose larvae have essentially the same habit, which justifies calling them cutworms, are not noctuids. The turnip moth ( Agrotis segetum ), A. ipsilon , A. exclamationis , and other members of this genus, are well-known noctuids whose larvae are very damaging. Cutworms are notorious agricultural and garden pests. They are voracious leaf, bud, and stem feeders and can destroy entire plants. They get their name from their habit of "cutting" off

665-625: The pyrrolizidine alkaloid sequestration usually present in Arctiinae is also found in a few species of noctuids, including the Spanish moth ( Xanthopastis timais ). Another chemical defense is formic acid production, which was thought to be present only in Notodontidae , but later was found in caterpillars of Trachosea champa . Finally, the last type of chemical defense is regurgitation of plant compounds, often used by many insects, but

700-430: The basal location to the outer edge (proximal to distal) on the forewing, there is a claviform (club-shaped) stigma, horizontally oriented with the thicker end closer to the wing's outer edge, located posterior to a discal (round) stigma. These are followed distally by a reniform (kidney-shaped) stigma, which is typically oriented with its concave side facing the wing's outer edge. It is often not possible to discern all of

735-589: The behavior of the larvae of this group, which can occur in destructive swarms and cut the stems of plants. This family is cosmopolitan and can be found worldwide except in the Antarctic region . Some species, such as the setaceous Hebrew character ( Xestia c-nigrum ), can be found in the Arctic Circle , specifically in the Yukon territory of western Canada , with an elevation 1,702 m above sea level, where

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770-490: The cabbage palm caterpillar ( Litoprosopus futilis ) produces a toxin called toluquinone that deters predators. On the other hand, the main physical defense in caterpillars and adults alike is mimicry . Most owlet moths have drab colors with a variety of patterns suitable to camouflage their bodies. The second physical defense consists in thousands of secondary setae that surround the body. The subfamilies that present this mechanism are Pantheinae and Acronictinae . The third

805-419: The cutworm mode of feeding is only one version of a strategy of avoiding predators and parasitoids by day. Many other caterpillars, including Noctuidae and some kinds of processionary caterpillars , come out at night to feed, but hide again as soon as the sky begins to grow lighter. Some, for example Klugeana philoxalis , attack low-growing forbs such as Oxalis in the dark, and drop to the ground as soon as

840-482: The domestic gardener may be able to deal with the problem simply by digging the soil and wet foliage to about 2 inches deep, and killing the caterpillars manually. Starvation also can be effective when it is practical to keep weeds down before the growing season, by systematic cultivation. Together with reducing manure and compost , relying instead on other forms of fertilizer, this can improve control by discouraging cutworm moths from laying their eggs, and depriving

875-411: The fall armyworm ( Spodoptera frugiperda ) and of genera such as Heliothis and Helicoverpa , aggressively eat their siblings and often other species of caterpillar. Nectarivory and puddling : Like many Lepidoptera , many species of adult Noctuidae visit flowers for their nectar. They also seek other liquid food resources such as plant juices, honeydew , dung, urea and mud, among others. As

910-582: The family Erebidae , the latter holds this title now. Currently, Noctuidae is the second largest family in Noctuoidea, with about 1,089 genera and 11,772 species. This classification is still contingent, as more changes continue to appear between Noctuidae and Erebidae. Adult : Most noctuid adults have wings with a variety of shades of browns, grays, and other varied shades and colourations but some subfamilies, such as Acronictinae and Agaristinae , are very colorful, especially those from tropical regions (e.g. Baorisa hieroglyphica ). They are characterized by

945-595: The first part of the plant they find at night, plant collars made of aluminum, or even cardboard barriers, can offer effective protection. Alternatively, a gallon planter with both ends removed may be used. Cutworms are hosts for numerous parasitoid wasps (including species of Braconidae , Ichneumonidae , Tachinidae and Eulophidae ) and flies , with rates of parasitism sometimes as high as 80 percent. They are also hosts for fungi , entomopathogenic nematodes and viruses , and prey for ground beetles . Lychnis (moth) The lychnis ( Hadena bicruris )

980-411: The genera. There also are variations in their biology and control, so the following extension material must be applied only as appropriate to the region. In many climates, cutworms will winter under the soil, either as final instar larvae or as pupae . This affords farmers an opportunity for control. Winter ploughing will kill many of the pests, and expose many more to predators. In suitable areas this

1015-444: The larvae of food. Baits also can be effective where starvation strategies have been applied reasonably successfully; a sweetened bran mash containing a suitable stomach poison can be very effective against the small numbers of surviving caterpillars. The mash should be too crumbly and too thinly scattered to leave any lumps on the ground that domestic animals or desirable wild animals might otherwise pick up. Because cutworms attack

1050-496: The plant they cut down and feed on it, while others often move on after eating a small amount from a felled seedling; such a wasteful mode of feeding results in disproportionate damage to crops. Cutworms accordingly are serious pests to gardeners in general, but to vegetable and grain farmers in particular. For example, it has been suggested that in South Africa , Agrotis segetum is the second worst pest of maize. Note that

1085-440: The reproductive season from spring to fall, and mostly are multivoltine , such as the eastern panthea moth ( Panthea furcilla ), which reproduces over the year. Nevertheless, some species have just one brood of offspring ( univoltine ); among the best known is the lesser yellow underwing ( Noctua comes ). This group has a wide range of both chemical and physical defenses. Among the chemical defenses three types stand out. First,

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1120-416: The splendid brocade moth ( Lacanobia splendens ) feeds on cowbane ( Cicuta virosa ), a plant that is notoriously toxic to vertebrates. Predation and cannibalism : During the larval stage, some cutworms readily feed on other insects. One such species is the shivering pinion ( Lithophane querquera ), whose larvae commonly feed on other lepidopteran larvae. Moreover, many noctuid larvae, such as those of

1155-586: The stigmata on all specimens or species. Crossbands or crosslines may be present, oriented longitudinally from the leading to the trailing edge of the wing. Larva : Commonly green or brown; some species present bright colors, such as the camphorweed cucullia moth ( Cucullia alfarata ). Most are pudgy and smooth with rounded short heads and few setae , but there are some exceptions in some subfamilies (e.g. Acronictinae and Pantheinae ). Pupa : The pupae most often range from shiny brown to dark brown. When they newly pupate they are bright brownish orange, but after

1190-599: The temperature fluctuates between 23/-25 °C (73/-13 °F). Many species of dart moths have been recorded in elevations as high as 4,000 m above sea level (e.g. Xestia elisabetha ). Among the places where the number of species has been counted are North America and northern Mexico , with about 2,522 species. 1,576 species are found in Europe, while the other species are distributed worldwide. Members of Noctuidae, like other butterflies and moths, perform an important role in plant pollination . Some species have developed

1225-401: The variegated cutworm ( Peridroma saucia ) is described by many as one of the most damaging pests to vegetables. In West Africa, species including Busseola fusca , Heliocheilus albipunctella , Sesamia calamistis , Helicoverpa armigera , and Spodoptera exempta are major pests of staple crops such as pearl millet , sorghum , and maize . Since molecular analysis began to play

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