60-486: Sir Arthur Lionel Pugh Norrington (27 October 1899 – 21 May 1982) was a British publisher, President of Trinity College, Oxford , Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University , and creator, in 1963, of a scoring system for The Times ' table of Oxford colleges' examination results which since then has been known as the Norrington Table . Norrington was born at Normandy Villa, Godstone Road, Kenley , Surrey, England,
120-420: A London physician, said that his "water and vegetable diet" could cure anything from tuberculosis to acne. Lambe called animal food a "habitual irritation" and argued that "milk eating and flesh-eating are but branches of a common system and they must stand or fall together". Sylvester Graham 's meatless Graham diet—mostly fruit, vegetables, water, and bread made at home with stoneground flour —became popular as
180-812: A Residence on a Georgian plantation in 1838–1839 . In 1843, members of Alcott House created the British and Foreign Society for the Promotion of Humanity and Abstinence from Animal Food , led by Sophia Chichester , a wealthy benefactor of Alcott House. Alcott House also helped to establish the British Vegetarian Society , which held its first meeting in 1847 in Ramsgate, Kent . The Medical Times and Gazette in London reported in 1884: There are two kinds of Vegetarians—one an extreme form,
240-613: A Russian-British engineer) observing. World Vegan Day is held every 1 November to mark the founding of the Society, and the Society considers November World Vegan Month. The Vegan News changed its name to The Vegan in November 1945, by which time it had 500 subscribers. It published recipes and a "vegan trade list" of animal-free products, such as toothpastes, shoe polishes, stationery and glue. Vegan books appeared, including Vegan Recipes by Fay K. Henderson (1946) and Aids to
300-442: A Vegan Diet for Children by Kathleen V. Mayo (1948). The Vegan Society soon made clear that it rejected the use of animals for any purpose, not only in diet. In 1947, Watson wrote: "The vegan renounces it as superstitious that human life depends upon the exploitation of these creatures whose feelings are much the same as our own". From 1948, The Vegan ' s front page read: "Advocating living without exploitation", and in 1951,
360-581: A battleground over the following decades. There were regular discussions about it in the Vegetarian Messenger ; it appears from the correspondence pages that many opponents of veganism were vegetarians. During a visit to London in 1931, Mahatma Gandhi —who had joined the London Vegetarian Society 's executive committee when he lived in London from 1888 to 1891—gave a speech to the Society arguing that it ought to promote
420-581: A definition for food suitable for vegans on 22 April 2016. The European Vegetarian Union adopted this text for a proposal for a legally binding definition based on Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 in July 2019. In 2021, the International Organization for Standardization published standard ISO 23662 on "definitions and technical criteria for foods and food ingredients suitable for vegetarians or vegans and for labelling and claims". ISO 23662
480-658: A distrust of food producers, leading to increasing interest in organic gardening. One of the most influential vegetarian books of that time was Frances Moore Lappé 's 1971 Diet for a Small Planet . It sold more than three million copies and suggested "getting off the top of the food chain". The following decades saw research by a group of scientists and doctors in the U.S., including Dean Ornish , Caldwell Esselstyn , Neal D. Barnard , John A. McDougall , Michael Greger , and biochemist T. Colin Campbell , who argued that diets based on animal fat and animal protein, such as
540-608: A health remedy in the 1830s in the United States. The first known vegan cookbook was Asenath Nicholson 's Kitchen Philosophy for Vegetarians , published in 1849. Several vegan communities were established around this time. In Massachusetts, Amos Bronson Alcott , father of the novelist Louisa May Alcott , opened the Temple School in 1834 and Fruitlands in 1844, and in England, James Pierrepont Greaves founded
600-468: A large room in 1966 under Trinity College land and named it the " Norrington Room " after him. As well as the Norrington Table , other tables ranking different Oxford colleges have drawn upon Norrington's name, such as the "Vegetarian Norrington Table". First published in 2016, this table ranked the best and worst colleges in Oxford for their vegetarian and vegan food, using data provided by students of
660-604: A little finger in an accident. In 1919, he matriculated as a scholar to Trinity College, Oxford, achieving a first class in classical Honour Moderations in 1920, followed by a second in Literae Humaniores in 1923. Moving to London, he worked for the Oxford University Press , who posted him to their branch in India . Returning to Oxford in 1925, he took the post of junior assistant secretary to
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#1732765070147720-539: A meat-free diet as a matter of morality, not health. Lacto-vegetarians acknowledged the ethical consistency of the vegan position but regarded a vegan diet as impracticable and were concerned that it might be an impediment to spreading vegetarianism if vegans found themselves unable to participate in social circles where no non-animal food was available. This became the predominant view of the Vegetarian Society, which in 1935 stated: "The lacto-vegetarians , on
780-704: A vegan and vegetarian diet is that vegans exclude dairy products, eggs, and honey. Vegan meat alternatives are commonly sold in forms like vegetarian sausage , mince , or veggie burgers . They are often made from soybeans , seitan (wheat gluten), beans, lentils, rice, mushrooms or vegetables. Meat substitutes have been made in China since at least the Tang dynasty (618 to 907 common era ), including mock duck made from seitan. They are much newer to Western countries. Some famous Western producers of vegan meat alternatives include Impossible Foods and Beyond Meat . But in
840-399: Is " environmental veganism ", which refers to the avoidance of animal products on the grounds that the industrial farming of animals is environmentally damaging and unsustainable . Another motivation for veganism is concern about animal welfare . Since 1988, The Vegan Society gives two definitions of veganism: Veganism is a philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude—as far as
900-644: Is accepted among ethical and environmental vegans and the second definition by The Vegan Society is accepted among dietary vegans. The European Commission was granted the power to adopt an implementing act on food information related to suitability of a food for vegans by the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union in article 36 of Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 . The German consumer protection minister conference approved
960-599: Is lower in dietary energy, carbohydrates, and protein. Soy milk should not be used as a replacement for breast milk for babies. Babies who are not breastfed may be fed commercial infant formula , normally based on cow milk or soy. The latter is known as soy-based infant formula or SBIF. Butter and margarine can be replaced with alternate vegan products. Vegan cheeses are made from seeds, such as sesame and sunflower ; nuts, such as cashew, pine nut , and almond; and soybeans, coconut oil, nutritional yeast , tapioca , and rice, among other ingredients; and can replicate
1020-412: Is possible and practicable—all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose; and by extension, promotes the development and use of animal-free alternatives for the benefit of animals, humans and the environment. In dietary terms it denotes the practice of dispensing with all products derived wholly or partly from animals. The first definition by The Vegan Society
1080-488: Is quite true that most—not all—Food Reformers admit into their diet such animal food as milk, butter, cheese, and eggs..." Salt also argued that the primary objective of the vegetarian movement should be to eliminate meat, while contending that dairy and eggs are also unnecessary and could be phased out over time. C. W. Daniel published an early vegan cookbook, Rupert H. Wheldon 's No Animal Food: Two Essays and 100 Recipes , in 1910. The consumption of milk and eggs became
1140-762: Is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products —particularly in diet —and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals . A person who practices veganism is known as a vegan . The foundations of veganism include ethical, moral, environmental, health and humanitarian arguments. Veganism excludes all forms of animal use , whether in agriculture for labour or food (e.g., meat, fish, eggs, milk, dairy products , and honey), in clothing and industry (e.g., leather , wool , fur , and some cosmetics ), in entertainment (e.g., zoos , exotic pets , and circuses ), or in services (e.g., guide dogs , police dogs , hunting dogs , working animals , and animal testing , including medical experimentation and
1200-526: The Qimin Yaoshu , a Chinese agricultural encyclopedia written by Jia Sixie in 535. The encyclopedia mentions noodles prepared from wheat gluten called bótuō (餺飥). Wheat gluten was known as miànjīn (麵筋) by the Song dynasty (960–1279). In the 1960s and 1970s, a vegetarian food movement emerged as part of the counterculture in the United States that focused on concerns about diet, the environment, and
1260-666: The American Vegan Society (AVS), linking veganism to the concept of ahimsa , "non-harming" in Sanskrit . Distinctions may be made between several categories of veganism. Dietary vegans, also known as "strict vegetarians ", refrain from consuming meat , eggs , dairy products , and any other animal-derived substances. An " ethical vegan " is someone who not only excludes animal products from their diet but also tries to avoid using animals, animal products, and animal-tested products, when practical. Another term
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#17327650701471320-618: The Indus Valley civilization in 3300–1300 BCE in the Indian subcontinent , particularly in northern and western ancient India . Early vegetarians included Indian philosophers such as Parshavnatha , Mahavira , Acharya Kundakunda , Umaswati , Samantabhadra , and Valluvar ; the Indian emperors Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka . The term "Pure Vegan" or "Pure Buddhist" ( Chinese : 纯净素 ; pinyin : chúnjìngsù ) refers to
1380-483: The John Radcliffe Hospital , Oxford, on 21 May 1982. President (college) A head of college or head of house is the head or senior member of a college within a collegiate university . The title used varies between colleges, including dean , master , president , principal , provost , rector and warden . The role of the head of college varies significantly between colleges of
1440-540: The Western pattern diet , were unhealthy. They produced a series of books that recommend vegan or vegetarian diets, including McDougall's The McDougall Plan (1983), John Robbins 's Diet for a New America (1987), which associated meat eating with environmental damage, and Dr. Dean Ornish's Program for Reversing Heart Disease (1990). In 2003 two major North American dietitians' associations indicated that well-planned vegan diets were suitable for all life stages. This
1500-528: The Concordium, a vegan community at Alcott House on Ham Common , in 1838. The term "vegetarian" has been in use since around 1839 to refer to what was previously called a vegetable regimen or diet. Its origin is an irregular compound of vegetable and the suffix -arian (in the sense of "supporter, believer" as in humanitarian ). The earliest known written use is attributed to actress, writer and abolitionist Fanny Kemble , in her Journal of
1560-508: The Delegates of the Press. Norrington became assistant secretary to the Delegates of Oxford University Press in 1942; in 1948, he took the post of senior administrative officer of the Press and was elected a professorial fellow of Trinity College. Norrington focussed on expanding the range of the Press's educational books, particularly the successful 'Great Wartime Series' Oxford Pamphlets . He
1620-534: The Roman poet Ovid and the playwright Seneca the Younger . The Greek sage Pythagoras may have advocated an early form of strict vegetarianism, but his life is so obscure that it is disputed whether he ever advocated any form of vegetarianism. He almost certainly prohibited his followers from eating beans and wearing woolen garments . Eudoxus of Cnidus , a student of Archytas and Plato , writes, "Pythagoras
1680-771: The Society published its definition of veganism as "the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals". In 1956, its vice-president, Leslie Cross, founded the Plantmilk Society and in 1965, as Plantmilk Ltd and later Plamil Foods , it began production of one of the first widely distributed soy milks in the Western world. The first vegan society in the U.S. was founded in 1948 by Catherine Nimmo and Rubin Abramowitz in California, who distributed Watson's newsletter. In 1960, H. Jay Dinshah founded
1740-772: The U.S. by eight percent between 2012 and 2015, to $ 553 million a year. The Vegetarian Butcher ( De Vegetarische Slager ), the first known vegetarian butcher shop, selling mock meats, opened in the Netherlands in 2010, while America's first vegan butcher, the Herbivorous Butcher, opened in Minneapolis in 2016. Since 2017, more than 12,500 chain restaurant locations have begun offering Beyond Meat and Impossible Foods products, including Carl's Jr. outlets offering Beyond Burgers and Burger King outlets serving Impossible Whoppers. Plant-based meat sales in
1800-686: The U.S. grew 37% between 2017 and 2019. In 2011, Europe's first vegan supermarkets appeared in Germany: Veganz in Berlin and Vegilicious in Dortmund . In 2013, the Oktoberfest in Munich (traditionally a meat-heavy event) offered vegan dishes for the first time in its 200-year history. By 2016, 49% of Americans were drinking plant milk , and 91% still drank dairy milk. In the U.K.,
1860-643: The United Kingdom. This association continues into the 21st century, as evidenced by the prominence of vegan punk events such as Fluff Fest in Europe. The vegan diet became increasingly mainstream in the 2010s, especially in the latter half. The Economist declared 2019 "the year of the vegan". Chain restaurants began marking vegan items on their menus and supermarkets improved their selection of vegan-processed food. The global mock-meat market increased by 18 percent between 2005 and 2010, and in
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1920-657: The University seriously, both on the council and on the general board. He also held a post on the revising committee for the New English Bible , and in 1960 became the first chairman of the government committee for the publication of cheap books abroad. His name in Oxford is remembered for having devised the Norrington Table, a system of assessing the results of the Oxford colleges in final examinations,
1980-427: The University. The use of Norrington's name in this table was not without controversy, however, and drew criticism from a number of college bursars . Norrington married Edith Joyce Carver on 15 September 1928. Their son is the conductor Sir Roger Arthur Carver Norrington , CBE . Edith died at an early age in 1964 and on 9 December 1969 Norrington married a widow, Ruth Margaret Waterlow (née Cude). Norrington died in
2040-532: The government of the university and further afield often in aid of fund-raising for the college. The nature of the role varies in importance depending on the nature of the central university. At a loosely federated university such as the University of London or the National University of Ireland , where each member institution is self-governing and some hold university status in their own right,
2100-452: The head of each institution has the same level of responsibility as the vice-chancellor of a university. At more centralised universities, the heads of colleges have less power and responsibility. Heads of colleges will often participate in the governance of the central university. Mechanisms for this very between university and include: Many different titles are used for heads of colleges. These have also changed with time, in particularly
2160-527: The largest share of vegan consumers globally currently reside in Asia Pacific with nine percent of people following a vegan diet. In 2017, veganism rose in popularity in Hong Kong and China, particularly among millennials . China's vegan market was estimated to rise by more than 17% between 2015 and 2020, which is expected to be "the fastest growth rate internationally in that period". This exceeds
2220-497: The late 2010s many meat producers and supermarkets also started making their own brands of vegan meat substitutes. Plant milks —such as soy milk , almond milk , cashew milk , grain milks ( oat milk , flax milk and rice milk ), hemp milk , and coconut milk —are used in place of cow or goat milk. Soy milk provides around 7 g ( 1 ⁄ 4 oz) of protein per cup (240 mL or 8 fl oz), compared with 8 g (2/7oz) of protein per cup of cow's milk. Almond milk
2280-466: The lunches added by Los Angeles , California in 2018, Portland , Maine in 2019, and New York City in 2022. In January 2021, 582,538 people from 209 countries and territories signed up for Veganuary, breaking the previous year's record of 400,000. That month, ONA in France became the first vegan restaurant in the country to receive a Michelin star . That year, 79 more plant-based restaurants around
2340-433: The meltability of dairy cheese. Nutritional yeast is a common substitute for the taste of cheese in vegan recipes. Cheese substitutes can be made at home, including from nuts, such as cashews . Yoghurt and cream products can be replaced with plant-based products such as soy yoghurt . Various types of plant cream have been created to replace dairy cream , and some types of imitation whipped cream are non-dairy. In
2400-516: The members of which eat no animal food products what-so-ever; and a less extreme sect, who do not object to eggs, milk, or fish. The Vegetarian Society ... belongs to the latter more moderate division. An article in the Society's magazine, the Vegetarian Messenger , in 1851 discussed alternatives to shoe leather, which suggests the presence of vegans within the membership who rejected animal use entirely, not only in diet. Henry S. Salt 's 1886 A Plea for Vegetarianism and Other Essays asserts, "It
2460-554: The only son and eldest child of Arthur James Norrington, a merchant in the City of London , and his wife, Gertrude Sarah Elizabeth, daughter of William Pugh, a merchant from Montgomeryshire . He was a scholar at Winchester College from 1913, where he earned the nickname Thomas because of his scepticism of received lore. In 1918, he enlisted with the Royal Field Artillery and though he did not see active service, he lost
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2520-600: The plant milk market increased by 155 percent in two years, from 36 million litres (63 million imperial pints) in 2011 to 92 million (162 million imperial pints) in 2013. There was a 185% increase in new vegan products between 2012 and 2016 in the U.K. In 2017, the United States School Nutrition Association found 14% of school districts across the country were serving vegan school meals compared to 11.5% of schools offering vegan lunch in 2016. In total, as of 2016 ,
2580-542: The poems of Arthur Hugh Clough in 1951, he wrote Blackwell's, 1879–1979: the history of a family firm , published posthumously in 1983. Retiring from Trinity in 1970, he became Warden of Winchester College until 1974. He was made an honorary fellow of Trinity, St Cross College , and Wolfson College . He became an officer of the Légion d'honneur in 1962. Blackwell's bookshop in Broad Street, Oxford created
2640-532: The practice of non-consumption of meat in China. This term, which predates the Western Zhou Dynasty (1027–771 BCE), originated from the humble diet of the poor and the rituals and rites of Chinese Pure Land Buddhism within monasteries, showing the dual cultivation of mindfulness and abstinence from killing or harming any sentient being. In the Chinese language, veganism and vegetarianism share
2700-662: The projected growth in the second and third fastest-growing vegan markets internationally in the same period, the United Arab Emirates (10.6%) and Australia (9.6%) respectively. In 2018, Jacy Reese Anthis 's book The End of Animal Farming argued that veganism will completely replace animal-based food by 2100. The book was featured in The Guardian , The New Republic , and Forbes , among other newspapers and magazines. The growth of schools serving vegan school meals has increased in recent years with
2760-458: The recent move away from using master by colleges at Durham, Kent (where the position of head of college was abolished), Rice and Yale universities. In the case of some older colleges whose statutes are in Latin, the titles used in the modern era are English translations of those found in the statutes, e.g. "provost" for praepositus , and "warden" for custos . Vegan Veganism
2820-519: The same initial interpretation and character, as the language's polymorphic nature denotes a path or journey that differs only by subjective consciousness. Initially centred on abstaining from meat, this concept evolved to include the exclusion of all animal by-products , such as clothing, household items, and medicinal remedies, and extends to doing no harm in thought or action towards all sentient beings. Greek philosophers such as Empedocles , Theophrastus , Plutarch , Plotinus , and Porphyry ; and
2880-420: The same university, and even more so between different universities. However, the head of college will often have responsibility for leading the governing body of the college, often acting as a chair of various college committees; for executing the decisions of the governing body through the college's organisational structure, acting as a chief executive ; and for representing the college externally, both within
2940-477: The table continues to be compiled and the results published in the national press. In 1960, Norrington became Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University and proceeded to spend time looking at the status of dons who were not fellows of colleges, and to the future planning of the Science Area . In 1968, he received a knighthood. As well as publishing, with professors H. F. Lowry and F. L. Mulhauser, an edition of
3000-401: The term "veganism" is modern: it was coined in 1944 by Donald Watson with the aim of differentiating it from vegetarianism , which rejects the consumption of meat but accepts the consumption of other products of animal origin, such as milk, dairy products and eggs. Interest in veganism increased significantly in the 2010s. Groups Ideas Related Vegetarianism can be traced back to
3060-431: The use of pharmaceuticals derived from or tested on animals). A person who practices veganism may do so for personal health benefits or to reduce animal deaths, minimize animal suffering, or minimize their ecological footprint . Fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, grains and mushrooms are the basic elements of vegan food. Since ancient times individuals have been renouncing the consumption of products of animal origin, but
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#17327650701473120-611: The view—espoused by Porphyry in De Abstinentia ab Esu Animalium (" On Abstinence from Animal Food ", c. 268 – c. 270 )—that if humans deserve justice, then so do animals. Vegetarianism established itself as a significant movement in 19th-century Britain and the United States. A minority of vegetarians avoided animal food entirely. In 1813, the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley published A Vindication of Natural Diet , advocating "abstinence from animal food and spirituous liquors", and in 1815, William Lambe ,
3180-560: The whole, do not defend the practice of consuming the dairy products except on the ground of expediency." In August 1944, several members of the Vegetarian Society asked that a section of its newsletter be devoted to non-dairy vegetarianism. When the request was denied, Donald Watson , secretary of the Leicester branch, set up a new quarterly newsletter, The Vegan News , in November 1944, priced tuppence . The word vegan
3240-735: The word vegan was first published independently in 1962 by the Oxford Illustrated Dictionary , defined as "a vegetarian who eats no butter, eggs, cheese, or milk". The first edition of The Vegan News attracted more than 100 letters, including from George Bernard Shaw , who resolved to give up eggs and dairy. The Vegan Society held its first meeting in early November at the Attic Club, 144 High Holborn , London. In attendance were Donald Watson , Elsie B. Shrigley , Fay K. Henderson, Alfred Hy Haffenden, Paul Spencer and Bernard Drake, with Mme Pataleewa ( Barbara Moore ,
3300-650: The world received Michelin stars. At the end of the year, a poll conducted by The Guardian showed that a new high of 36% of the British public were interested in veganism. The city with the most vegan restaurants per resident in 2021 according to data collected from HappyCow was Chiang Mai (Thailand), followed by Ubud (Bali, Indonesia), Phuket (Thailand), Tel Aviv (Israel), and Lisbon (Portugal). Vegan diets are based on grains and other seeds , legumes (particularly beans ), fruits , vegetables , edible mushrooms , and nuts . The main difference between
3360-471: Was distinguished by such purity and so avoided killing and killers that he not only abstained from animal foods, but even kept his distance from cooks and hunters". One of the earliest known vegans was the Arab poet al-Ma'arri , famous for his poem "I No Longer Steal From Nature". ( c. 973 – c. 1057 ). Their arguments were based on health, the transmigration of souls , animal welfare , and
3420-404: Was followed by the film Earthlings (2005), Campbell's The China Study (2005), Rory Freedman and Kim Barnouin's Skinny Bitch (2005), Jonathan Safran Foer 's Eating Animals (2009), and the film Forks over Knives (2011). In the 1980s, veganism became associated with punk subculture and ideologies , particularly straight edge hardcore punk in the U.S. and anarcho-punk in
3480-478: Was instrumental in expanding the Press' recognition outside Oxford University . Norrington was a keen musician and contributed a great deal to the Press' music publishing as well as being a member of the Oxford Bach Choir , he became chairman of its committee in 1949. In 1952, he was invited to become the next president of Trinity College, which he accepted and took up in 1954. He took the affairs of
3540-562: Was invented by Watson and Dorothy Morgan, a schoolteacher he later married. The word is based on "the first three and last two letters of 'vegetarian ' " because it marked, in Watson's words, "the beginning and end of vegetarian". The Vegan News asked its readers if they could think of anything better than vegan to stand for "non-dairy vegetarian". They suggested allvega , neo-vegetarian , dairyban , vitan , benevore , sanivores , and beaumangeur . According to Joanne Stepaniak ,
3600-419: Was rejected by Nederlandse Vereniging voor Veganisme who found the standard inconsistent with their vision. Wheat gluten originally called miànjīn (麵筋), is a way of preparation of wheat that has been documented in China since the 6th century to the present day. It is widely consumed by Chinese Buddhist's , monastics and lay people as a substitute for meat. The oldest reference to wheat gluten appears in
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