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73-420: A related product, Norton Desktop , a graphical shell for MS-DOS and Windows, succeeded Norton Commander. It came in two variants, Norton Desktop for DOS and Norton Desktop for Windows . John Socha started work on Norton Commander in 1984; at the time, he called it "Visual DOS" or "VDOS". Norton Commander was easy to use because it had a constant view of two file manipulation objects at once. After starting

146-522: A read–eval–print loop, REPL ). Since the operating system shell is actually an application, it may easily be replaced with another similar application, for most operating systems. In addition to shells running on local systems, there are different ways to make remote systems available to local users; such approaches are usually referred to as remote access or remote administration. Initially available on multi-user mainframes , which provided text-based UIs for each active user simultaneously by means of

219-432: A teletypewriter can send codes representing keystrokes to a command interpreter program running on the computer; the command interpreter parses the sequence of keystrokes and responds with an error message if it cannot recognize the sequence of characters, or it may carry out some other program action such as loading an application program, listing files, logging in a user and many others. Operating systems such as UNIX have

292-688: A text terminal connected to the mainframe via serial line or modem , remote access has extended to Unix-like systems and Microsoft Windows. On Unix-like systems, Secure Shell protocol (SSH) is usually used for text-based shells, while SSH tunneling can be used for X Window System –based graphical user interfaces (GUIs). On Microsoft Windows, Remote Desktop Protocol can be used to provide GUI remote access, and since Windows Vista , PowerShell Remote can be used for text-based remote access via WMI, RPC, and WS-Management. Most operating system shells fall into one of two categories – command-line and graphical. Command-line shells provide

365-491: A broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web and the infrastructure to support email. Computer programming is the process of writing, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source code and documentation of computer programs. This source code

438-424: A command-line interface (CLI) to the operating system, while graphical shells provide a graphical user interface (GUI). Other possibilities, although not so common, include a voice user interface and various implementations of a text-based user interface (TUI) that are not CLI, such as text-based menu systems. The relative merits of CLI- and GUI-based shells are often debated. Many computer users use both depending on

511-459: A command-line interface. For example, in Unix-like systems, the telnet program has a number of commands for controlling a link to a remote computer system. Since the commands to the program are made of the same keystrokes as the data being sent to a remote computer, some means of distinguishing the two are required. An escape sequence can be defined, using either a special local keystroke that

584-497: A computer's capabilities, but typically do not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user, unlike application software. Application software, also known as an application or an app , is computer software designed to help the user perform specific tasks. Examples include enterprise software , accounting software , office suites , graphics software , and media players . Many application programs deal principally with documents . Apps may be bundled with

657-415: A computer's role and particular operation. It is named a shell because it is the outermost layer around the operating system. Operating systems provide various services to their users, including file management , process management (running and terminating applications ), batch processing , and operating system monitoring and configuration. Most operating system shells are not direct interfaces to

730-408: A crowded hard disk is a breeze". There are several programs that follow the style of Norton Commander. Examples are: Shell (computing) In computing , a shell is a computer program that exposes an operating system 's services to a human user or other programs. In general, operating system shells use either a command-line interface (CLI) or graphical user interface (GUI), depending on

803-530: A large variety of shell programs with different commands, syntax and capabilities, with the POSIX shell being a baseline. Some operating systems had only a single style of command interface; commodity operating systems such as MS-DOS came with a standard command interface ( COMMAND.COM ) but third-party interfaces were also often available, providing additional features or functions such as menuing or remote program execution. Application programs may also implement

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876-433: A purpose-built program. Several command-line shells, such as Nushell , Xonsh, Bash (Unix shell) , and Z shell , offer command-line completion , enabling the interpreter to expand commands based on a few characters input by the user. A command-line interpreter may offer a history function, so that the user can recall earlier commands issued to the system and repeat them, possibly with some editing. Since all commands to

949-458: A set of instructions called a computer program . The program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its human-readable source code form, enables a programmer to study and develop a sequence of steps known as an algorithm . Because the instructions can be carried out in different types of computers, a single set of source instructions converts to machine instructions according to

1022-419: A set of loosely coupled utilities. Most graphical user interfaces develop the metaphor of an "electronic desktop" , where data files are represented as if they were paper documents on a desk, and application programs similarly have graphical representations instead of being invoked by command names. Graphical shells typically build on top of a windowing system . In the case of X Window System or Wayland ,

1095-682: A shell is a piece of software that is an "empty" expert system without the knowledge base for any particular application. Computing Computing is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computing machinery . It includes the study and experimentation of algorithmic processes, and the development of both hardware and software. Computing has scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological, and social aspects. Major computing disciplines include computer engineering , computer science , cybersecurity , data science , information systems , information technology , and software engineering . The term computing

1168-468: A success, so the key PNC resources had been diverted, while new programmers for the Windows platform were hired. Enrique Salem (who eventually became Symantec's CEO) led the development of a Windows shell replacement for Windows File Manager and Program Manager released as Norton Desktop for Windows. Norton Commander for Windows was a Windows 95 variant of the classical DOS file manager. Version 1.0

1241-435: A superposition, i.e. in both states of one and zero, simultaneously. Thus, the value of the qubit is not between 1 and 0, but changes depending on when it is measured. This trait of qubits is known as quantum entanglement , and is the core idea of quantum computing that allows quantum computers to do large scale computations. Quantum computing is often used for scientific research in cases where traditional computers do not have

1314-421: Is spintronics . Spintronics can provide computing power and storage, without heat buildup. Some research is being done on hybrid chips, which combine photonics and spintronics. There is also research ongoing on combining plasmonics , photonics, and electronics. Cloud computing is a model that allows for the use of computing resources, such as servers or applications, without the need for interaction between

1387-460: Is a discipline that integrates several fields of electrical engineering and computer science required to develop computer hardware and software. Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering ), software design , and hardware-software integration, rather than just software engineering or electronic engineering. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing, from

1460-487: Is a good example of the former sort of application. LiteStep and Emerge Desktop are good examples of the latter. Interoperability programmes and purpose-designed software lets Windows users use equivalents of many of the various Unix-based GUIs discussed below, as well as Macintosh. An equivalent of the OS/2 Presentation Manager for version 3.0 can run some OS/2 programmes under some conditions using

1533-414: Is a person who writes computer software. The term computer programmer can refer to a specialist in one area of computer programming or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software. One who practices or professes a formal approach to programming may also be known as a programmer analyst. A programmer's primary computer language ( C , C++ , Java , Lisp , Python , etc.) is often prefixed to

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1606-409: Is also synonymous with counting and calculating . In earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by mechanical computing machines , and before that, to human computers . The history of computing is longer than the history of computing hardware and includes the history of methods intended for pen and paper (or for chalk and slate) with or without the aid of tables. Computing

1679-414: Is an area of research that brings together the disciplines of computer science, information theory, and quantum physics. While the idea of information as part of physics is relatively new, there appears to be a strong tie between information theory and quantum mechanics. Whereas traditional computing operates on a binary system of ones and zeros, quantum computing uses qubits . Qubits are capable of being in

1752-423: Is computer software designed to operate and control computer hardware, and to provide a platform for running application software. System software includes operating systems , utility software , device drivers , window systems , and firmware . Frequently used development tools such as compilers , linkers , and debuggers are classified as system software. System software and middleware manage and integrate

1825-476: Is denoted CMOS-integrated nanophotonics (CINP). One benefit of optical interconnects is that motherboards, which formerly required a certain kind of system on a chip (SoC), can now move formerly dedicated memory and network controllers off the motherboards, spreading the controllers out onto the rack. This allows standardization of backplane interconnects and motherboards for multiple types of SoCs, which allows more timely upgrades of CPUs. Another field of research

1898-490: Is intimately tied to the representation of numbers, though mathematical concepts necessary for computing existed before numeral systems . The earliest known tool for use in computation is the abacus , and it is thought to have been invented in Babylon circa between 2700 and 2300 BC. Abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today. The first recorded proposal for using digital electronics in computing

1971-710: Is its potential to support energy efficiency. Allowing thousands of instances of computation to occur on one single machine instead of thousands of individual machines could help save energy. It could also ease the transition to renewable energy source, since it would suffice to power one server farm with renewable energy, rather than millions of homes and offices. However, this centralized computing model poses several challenges, especially in security and privacy. Current legislation does not sufficiently protect users from companies mishandling their data on company servers. This suggests potential for further legislative regulations on cloud computing and tech companies. Quantum computing

2044-471: Is never passed on but always interpreted by the local system. The program becomes modal, switching between interpreting commands from the keyboard or passing keystrokes on as data to be processed. A feature of many command-line shells is the ability to save sequences of commands for re-use. A data file can contain sequences of commands which the CLI can be made to follow as if typed in by a user. Special features in

2117-559: Is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of electrical engineering , telecommunications, computer science , information technology, or computer engineering , since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of these disciplines. The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users. This includes millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, ranging in scope from local to global. These networks are linked by

2190-687: Is the application of computers and telecommunications equipment to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data, often in the context of a business or other enterprise. The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several industries are associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software, electronics , semiconductors , internet, telecom equipment , e-commerce , and computer services . DNA-based computing and quantum computing are areas of active research for both computing hardware and software, such as

2263-509: Is the study of complementary networks of hardware and software (see information technology) that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute data . The ACM 's Computing Careers describes IS as: "A majority of IS [degree] programs are located in business schools; however, they may have different names such as management information systems, computer information systems, or business information systems. All IS degrees combine business and computing topics, but

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2336-449: Is thus often developed by a team of domain experts, each a specialist in some area of development. However, the term programmer may apply to a range of program quality, from hacker to open source contributor to professional. It is also possible for a single programmer to do most or all of the computer programming needed to generate the proof of concept to launch a new killer application . A programmer, computer programmer, or coder

2409-429: Is written in a programming language , which is an artificial language that is often more restrictive than natural languages , but easily translated by the computer. Programming is used to invoke some desired behavior (customization) from the machine. Writing high-quality source code requires knowledge of both the computer science domain and the domain in which the application will be used. The highest-quality software

2482-557: The CPU type. The execution process carries out the instructions in a computer program. Instructions express the computations performed by the computer. They trigger sequences of simple actions on the executing machine. Those actions produce effects according to the semantics of the instructions. Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, including the central processing unit , memory , and input/output . Computational logic and computer architecture are key topics in

2555-911: The Thompson shell in the first version of Unix. While simpler than the Multics shell, it contained some innovative features, which have been carried forward in modern shells, including the use of < and > for input and output redirection . The graphical shell first appeared in Douglas Engelbart ’s NLS system, demonstrated in December, 1968 at the Fall Joint Computer Conference in San Francisco, in what has been called The Mother of All Demos . Engelbart’s colleagues at Stanford Research Institute brought

2628-444: The function of the program it implements, either by directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software. The term was coined to contrast with the old term hardware (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is intangible. Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only. System software, or systems software,

2701-443: The 95 and NT types at least through Windows XP. The interfaces of Windows versions 1 and 2 were markedly different. Desktop applications are also considered shells, as long as they use a third-party engine. Likewise, many individuals and developers dissatisfied with the interface of Windows Explorer have developed software that either alters the functioning and appearance of the shell or replaces it entirely. WindowBlinds by StarDock

2774-580: The CLI may apply when it is carrying out these stored instructions. Such batch files (script files) can be used repeatedly to automate routine operations such as initializing a set of programs when a system is restarted. Batch mode use of shells usually involves structures, conditionals, variables, and other elements of programming languages; some have the bare essentials needed for such a purpose, others are very sophisticated programming languages in and of themselves. Conversely, some programming languages can be used interactively from an operating system shell or in

2847-558: The Microsoft Windows operating system use the Windows shell as their shell. Windows Shell provides desktop environment , start menu , and task bar , as well as a graphical user interface for accessing the file management functions of the operating system. Older versions also include Program Manager , which was the shell for the 3.x series of Microsoft Windows, and which in fact shipped with later versions of Windows of both

2920-525: The Norton Commander. Network Utilities allows for viewing devices and systems on network, connecting to remote systems, mapping network drives , network monitoring, and more. Norton Commander is little changed from previous versions, and includes file compression /de-compression of various formats, network utilities access, disk cleanup, files and folder compare, FTP connection management, and more. The last Windows version of Norton Commander

2993-459: The OS/2 environmental subsystem in versions of Windows NT. "Shell" is also used loosely to describe application software that is "built around" a particular component, such as web browsers and email clients, in analogy to the shells found in nature. Indeed, the (command-line) shell encapsulates the operating system kernel . These are also sometimes referred to as "wrappers". In expert systems ,

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3066-880: The above titles, and those who work in a web environment often prefix their titles with Web . The term programmer can be used to refer to a software developer , software engineer, computer scientist , or software analyst . However, members of these professions typically possess other software engineering skills, beyond programming. The computer industry is made up of businesses involved in developing computer software, designing computer hardware and computer networking infrastructures, manufacturing computer components, and providing information technology services, including system administration and maintenance. The software industry includes businesses engaged in development , maintenance , and publication of software. The industry also includes software services , such as training , documentation , and consulting. Computer engineering

3139-457: The challenges in implementing computations. For example, programming language theory studies approaches to the description of computations, while the study of computer programming investigates the use of programming languages and complex systems . The field of human–computer interaction focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans. The field of cybersecurity pertains to

3212-560: The computer and its system software, or may be published separately. Some users are satisfied with the bundled apps and need never install additional applications. The system software manages the hardware and serves the application, which in turn serves the user. Application software applies the power of a particular computing platform or system software to a particular purpose. Some apps, such as Microsoft Office , are developed in multiple versions for several different platforms; others have narrower requirements and are generally referred to by

3285-636: The concept to the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), where it appeared on the Alto , introduced in 1973. From there the idea spread to Niklaus Wirth ’s Lilith in 1980, and the Apple Lisa in 1983, then became ubiquitous. A command-line interface (CLI) is an operating system shell that uses alphanumeric characters typed on a keyboard to provide instructions and data to the operating system, interactively. For example,

3358-448: The design of individual microprocessors , personal computers, and supercomputers , to circuit design . This field of engineering includes not only the design of hardware within its own domain, but also the interactions between hardware and the context in which it operates. Software engineering is the application of a systematic, disciplined, and quantifiable approach to the design, development, operation, and maintenance of software, and

3431-414: The development of quantum algorithms . Potential infrastructure for future technologies includes DNA origami on photolithography and quantum antennae for transferring information between ion traps. By 2011, researchers had entangled 14 qubits . Fast digital circuits , including those based on Josephson junctions and rapid single flux quantum technology, are becoming more nearly realizable with

3504-437: The discovery of nanoscale superconductors . Fiber-optic and photonic (optical) devices, which already have been used to transport data over long distances, are starting to be used by data centers, along with CPU and semiconductor memory components. This allows the separation of RAM from CPU by optical interconnects. IBM has created an integrated circuit with both electronic and optical information processing in one chip. This

3577-686: The emphasis between technical and organizational issues varies among programs. For example, programs differ substantially in the amount of programming required." The study of IS bridges business and computer science , using the theoretical foundations of information and computation to study various business models and related algorithmic processes within a computer science discipline. The field of Computer Information Systems (CIS) studies computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society while IS emphasizes functionality over design. Information technology (IT)

3650-665: The engineering paradigm. The generally accepted concepts of Software Engineering as an engineering discipline have been specified in the Guide to the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge (SWEBOK). The SWEBOK has become an internationally accepted standard in ISO/IEC TR 19759:2015. Computer science or computing science (abbreviated CS or Comp Sci) is the scientific and practical approach to computation and its applications. A computer scientist specializes in

3723-434: The field of computer hardware. Computer software, or just software , is a collection of computer programs and related data, which provides instructions to a computer. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer. It is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms, as well as its documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing system. Program software performs

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3796-442: The first silicon dioxide field effect transistors at Bell Labs, the first transistors in which drain and source were adjacent at the surface. Subsequently, a team demonstrated a working MOSFET at Bell Labs 1960. The MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuits , leading to what is known as the computer revolution or microcomputer revolution . A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to

3869-524: The first working transistor , the point-contact transistor , in 1947. In 1953, the University of Manchester built the first transistorized computer , the Manchester Baby . However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to mass-produce, which limited them to a number of specialised applications. In 1957, Frosch and Derick were able to manufacture

3942-429: The idea of "using commands somehow like a programming language," and coined the term shell to describe it. In a 1965 document, the shell is defined as "a common procedure called automatically by the supervisor whenever a user types in some message at his console, at a time when he has no other process in active execution under console control. This procedure acts as an interface between console messages and subroutine [in

4015-598: The operating system had to be typed by the user, short command names and compact systems for representing program options were common. Short names were sometimes hard for a user to recall, and early systems lacked the storage resources to provide a detailed on-line user instruction guide. A graphical user interface (GUI) provides means for manipulating programs graphically, by allowing for operations such as opening, closing, moving and resizing windows , as well as switching focus between windows. Graphical shells may be included with desktop environments or come separately, even as

4088-460: The owner of these resources and the end user. It is typically offered as a service, making it an example of Software as a Service , Platforms as a Service , and Infrastructure as a Service , depending on the functionality offered. Key characteristics include on-demand access, broad network access, and the capability of rapid scaling. It allows individual users or small business to benefit from economies of scale . One area of interest in this field

4161-480: The platform they run on. For example, a geography application for Windows or an Android application for education or Linux gaming . Applications that run only on one platform and increase the desirability of that platform due to the popularity of the application, known as killer applications . A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components and computers interconnected by communication channels that allow

4234-467: The program the user sees two panels with file lists. Each panel can be easily configured to show information about the other panel, a directory tree , or a number of other options. At the bottom of the screen, Norton Commander displays a list of commands that are extended on demand by the CTRL and ALT keys. Thus, without heavy use of the mouse (although mouse functionality was integrated around version 3.0),

4307-522: The protection of computer systems and networks. This includes information and data privacy , preventing disruption of IT services and prevention of theft of and damage to hardware, software, and data. Data science is a field that uses scientific and computing tools to extract information and insights from data, driven by the increasing volume and availability of data. Data mining , big data , statistics, machine learning and deep learning are all interwoven with data science. Information systems (IS)

4380-606: The rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network, and provide the basis for network programming . One well-known communications protocol is Ethernet , a hardware and link layer standard that is ubiquitous in local area networks . Another common protocol is the Internet Protocol Suite , which defines a set of protocols for internetworking, i.e. for data communication between multiple networks, host-to-host data transfer, and application-specific data transmission formats. Computer networking

4453-689: The same shortcut keys as Norton Commander but the plugin is now obsolete. Windows 95 included a new graphical shell called Windows Explorer and supported long filenames (LFN). Symantec released Norton Commander 5.51 to support long filenames using the standard Windows APIs . In order to preserve LFNs while working in real mode , Norton Commander 5.51 required the use of a terminate-and-stay-resident (TSR) utility. Norton Commander did not have native support for LFNs in real mode and would truncate them. According to former Peter Norton Group developer Mark Lawler, after Symantec had acquired Peter Norton Computing, Symantec had speculated Microsoft Windows would be

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4526-454: The sharing of resources and information. When at least one process in one device is able to send or receive data to or from at least one process residing in a remote device, the two devices are said to be in a network. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics such as the medium used to transport the data, communications protocol used, scale, topology , and organizational scope. Communications protocols define

4599-561: The shell consists of an X window manager or a Wayland compositor , respectively, as well as of one or multiple programs providing the functionality to start installed applications, to manage open windows and virtual desktops, and often to support a widget engine. In the case of macOS , Quartz Compositor acts as the windowing system, and the shell consists of the Finder , the Dock , SystemUIServer, and Mission Control . Modern versions of

4672-442: The study of these approaches. That is, the application of engineering to software. It is the act of using insights to conceive, model and scale a solution to a problem. The first reference to the term is the 1968 NATO Software Engineering Conference , and was intended to provoke thought regarding the perceived software crisis at the time. Software development , a widely used and more generic term, does not necessarily subsume

4745-451: The supervisor]." This system was first implemented by Glenda Schroeder and an unnamed man from General Electric . Multics also introduced the active function , a key concept in all later shells. This is defined as a string... which is replaced by a character string return value before the command line containing it is executed. Active functions are often used... to implement command-language macros. In 1971, Ken Thompson developed

4818-566: The system or a user process. The purpose of such a procedure is to create a medium of exchange into which one could activate any procedure, as if it were called from the inside of another program . Hereafter, for simplification, we shall refer to that procedure as the "SHELL". Louis Pouzin, The SHELL: A Global Tool for Calling and Chaining Procedures in the System In 1964, for the Multics operating system, Louis Pouzin conceived

4891-499: The task to be performed. Early interactive systems provided a simple command-line interpreter as part of the resident monitor . This interpreter might be called by different names, such as COMCON on DEC TOPS-10 systems. The interpreter would execute one of a number of predefined commands, one of which would be to run a user program. Common commands would log the user on and off the system, allocate, free, and manipulate devices and files, and query various pieces of information about

4964-446: The theory of computation and the design of computational systems. Its subfields can be divided into practical techniques for its implementation and application in computer systems , and purely theoretical areas. Some, such as computational complexity theory , which studies fundamental properties of computational problems , are highly abstract, while others, such as computer graphics , emphasize real-world applications. Others focus on

5037-440: The underlying kernel , even if a shell communicates with the user via peripheral devices attached to the computer directly. Shells are actually special applications that use the kernel API in just the same way as it is used by other application programs. A shell manages the user–system interaction by prompting users for input, interpreting their input, and then handling output from the underlying operating system (much like

5110-516: The user is able to perform many file manipulation actions quickly and efficiently. Additionally, it also includes a built-in text file viewer (invoked with F3 key) and text file editor (invoked with F4 key). Norton Commander was very popular during the DOS era and it has been extensively cloned. For example, the IntelliJ IDE used to include a "Commander" plugin that performed file manipulation using

5183-505: Was 2.01. Version 1.0 was released in December 1992. It supports OS/2 2.0 with HPFS or FAT file system. It does not include the command prompt found in other versions of Norton Commander. In June 1993, Symantec lowered the price of Norton Commander for OS/2 to $ 49, and soon ceased sales. BYTE in 1989 listed Norton Commander 2.0 for DOS as among the "Distinction" winners of the BYTE Awards, stating that "navigating through

5256-548: Was first released in 1996. It supported both Windows 95 and Windows NT . This version fully integrated with Windows features such as the Recycle Bin and Quick View . Quick View feature was supported via the included basic Quick View Plus. Version 1.02 added Windows 98 support. Version 2.0 was released in 2000. It supports Windows 2000 and functions under Windows XP , Windows Vista , and Windows 7 . Installer included Network Utilities, Norton Commander Scheduler, and

5329-488: Was the 1931 paper "The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena" by C. E. Wynn-Williams . Claude Shannon 's 1938 paper " A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits " then introduced the idea of using electronics for Boolean algebraic operations. The concept of a field-effect transistor was proposed by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925. John Bardeen and Walter Brattain , while working under William Shockley at Bell Labs , built

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